హరప్పా: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు
| పంక్తి 17: | పంక్తి 17: | ||
What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.<ref>{{cite journal|url = | doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012 | pmid=29539378 | volume=2 | issue=2–3 | title=A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa | year=2012 | journal=International Journal of Paleopathology | pages=136–147 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen}}</ref> Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).<ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0084814 | volume=8 | issue=12 | title=Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization | year=2013 | journal=PLoS ONE | page=e84814 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen| pmc=3866234 }}</ref> Furthermore, rates of cranio-facial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilization collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety, a basic feature of hierarchical societies worldwide.<ref name="plosone.org"/> |
What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.<ref>{{cite journal|url = | doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012 | pmid=29539378 | volume=2 | issue=2–3 | title=A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa | year=2012 | journal=International Journal of Paleopathology | pages=136–147 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen}}</ref> Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).<ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0084814 | volume=8 | issue=12 | title=Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization | year=2013 | journal=PLoS ONE | page=e84814 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen| pmc=3866234 }}</ref> Furthermore, rates of cranio-facial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilization collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety, a basic feature of hierarchical societies worldwide.<ref name="plosone.org"/> |
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==Archaeology== |
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[[File:Archaeological Map of Harappa.png|thumb|A map of the excavations at Harappa]] |
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[[File:Harappan small figures.jpg|thumb|Miniature Votive Images or Toy Models from Harappa, ca. 2500. Hand-modeled terra-cotta figurines with polychromy.]] |
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The excavators of the site have proposed the following [[Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization|chronology]] of Harappa's occupation:<ref name=unesco /> |
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#Ravi Aspect of the [[Hakra]] phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC. |
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#Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC. |
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#Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC. |
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#Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC. |
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#Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC. |
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By far the most exquisite and obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square [[steatite]] (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern [[cryptography|cryptographic analysis]], the [[Indus script|signs]] remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-[[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] or other non-[[Vedic period|Vedic]] language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilization [[iconography]] and [[epigraphy]] to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.{{or?|date=July 2019}}{{cn|date=July 2019}} |
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In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in [[Tamil Nadu]] discovered a stone [[celt (tool)]] with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.<ref name="The Hindu_century">{{cite news | last=Subramaniam | first=T. S. | title= "Discovery of a century" in Tamil Nadu | date=May 1, 2006 | url =http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050112670100.htm | work =The Hindu | accessdate = 2008-05-21}}</ref> |
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<ref name="significance">{{cite news | last=Subramaniam | first=T. S. | title=Significance of Mayiladuthurai find | date=May 1, 2006 | url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm | work=The Hindu | accessdate=2008-05-23 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214654/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm | archive-date=30 April 2008 | dead-url=yes }}</ref> Indian epigraphist [[Iravatham Mahadevan]] postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu".<ref name="The Hindu_century" /> Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis. |
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== పాద పీఠికలు == |
== పాద పీఠికలు == |
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17:13, 6 సెప్టెంబరు 2019 నాటి కూర్పు
హరప్పా (ఆంగ్లం :Harappa) (ఉర్దూ: ہڑپہ, హిందీ: हड़प्पा), పాకిస్తాను పంజాబుకు ఈశాన్యాన సాహివాలు పట్టణానికి నైఋతి దిశన 33 కి.మీ. దూరంలో వున్న ఒక ప్రాచీన నగరం. నవీన పట్టణం రావీ నది దగ్గరలో ఉంది. ఈ పట్టణంలో ప్రాచీన కోట ఉంది. ఇందులో సింధు లోయ నాగరికత లోని హెచి ఆకారపు నిర్మాణాలు కలిగివున్నది. ప్రస్తుత హరప్ప గ్రామం పురాతన ప్రదేశం నుండి 1 కిమీ (0.62 మైళ్ళు) కన్నా తక్కువ. ఆధునిక హరప్పాలో బ్రిటిషు రాజు కాలం నుండి లెగసీ రైల్వే స్టేషను ఉన్నప్పటికీ ఇది ఈ రోజు 15,000 మంది జనాభా కలిగిన చిన్న క్రాస్‌రోడ్సు కలిగిన పట్టణం.
క్రీ.పూ. 3300 సం.లో ఈ నగరంలో ప్రజలు నివాసాలేర్పరచుకున్నట్టు, 23,500 ప్రజలు నివసించేవారనీ తెలుస్తోంది. ఆకాలంలో ఇంత జనాభాగల నగరం చరిత్రలోనే లేదు, నివసించేవారని తెలుస్తున్నది. హరప్పా సభ్యత నేటి పాకిస్తాన్ కు ఆవలివరకూ వ్యాపించియున్ననూ, సింధ్ మరియు పంజాబ్ కేంద్రముగా కలిగివున్నది.[1]
పురాతన నగరం ప్రదేశం సింధు, పంజాబు కేంద్రీకృతమై ఉన్న సింధు లోయ నాగరికతలో భాగమైన కంచుయుగం కోటనగరం శిధిలాలను, స్మశానవాటిక హెచ్ సంస్కృతి కలిగి ఉంది.[2] పరిపక్వ హరప్పను దశలో (క్రీ.పూ. 2600 - క్రీ.పూ. 1900) ఈ నగరం 23,500 మంది నివాసితులను కలిగి ఉందని, 150 హెక్టార్ల (370 ఎకరాలు) మట్టి ఇటుక ఇళ్లను కలిగి ఉందని విశ్వసిస్తారు. ఇది ఆ కాలానికి పెద్దదిగా పరిగణించబడుతుంది.[3][4]ఇంతకుముందు తెలియని నాగరికతకు దాని మొదటి తవ్విన ప్రదేశం ద్వారా పేరు పెట్టే పురావస్తు పరిశోధకులు సింధు లోయ నాగరికతను హరప్పా నాగరికత అని కూడా పిలుస్తారు.
లాహోరు-ముల్తాను రైల్వే నిర్మాణంలో బయటపడిన శిధిలాల నుండి ఇటుకలను ట్రాకు బ్యాలస్టుగా ఉపయోగించిన కారణంగా పురాతన నగరం హరప్ప బ్రిటిషు పాలనలో భారీగా దెబ్బతింది. 2005 లో భవన నిర్మాణ పనుల ప్రారంభ దశలో బిల్డర్లు అనేక పురావస్తు కళాఖండాలను కనుగొన్న కారణంగా ఈ స్థలంలో వివాదాస్పద అమ్యూజుమెంటు పార్కు పథకం వదిలివేయబడింది.[5] పాకిస్తాను పురావస్తు శాస్త్రవేత్త మోహితు ప్రేం కుమారు సాంస్కృతిక మంత్రిత్వ శాఖకు చేసిన విజ్ఞప్తి ఫలితంగా ఈ స్థలం పునరుద్ధరించబడింది.
చరిత్ర
సింధు లోయ నాగరికత (హరప్పా నాగరికత అనికూడా పిలువబడుతుంది) చరిత్ర మెహరుగఢు నాగరికత, దాదాపు 6000 క్రీ.పూ. వరకూ వెళుతుంది. రెండు ప్రసిద్ధ నగరాలు మొహంజో దారో, హరప్పాలు, పంజాబు, సింధు ప్రాంతాలలో క్రీ.పూ. 2600 లో వెలసిల్లాయి.[6] ఈ నాగరికతలో వ్రాత విధానం, నగర కేంద్రాలు, వైవిధ్యభరిత సామాజిక ఆర్థిక విధానాలు మున్నగునవి క్రీ.శ. 20వ శతాబ్దంలో చేపట్టబడిన పురాతత్వ త్రవ్వకాలలో కనుగొనబడినవి. ఈ త్రవ్వకాలలో ఇవి "మొహంజో దారో" (అర్థం: చనిపోయిన వారి సమాధి శిథిలాలు) సింధు ప్రాంతంలో సుక్కురు వద్ద, హరప్పా, పశ్చిమ పంజాబు లాహోరుకు దక్షిణాన కనుగొనబడ్డాయి.[7]
Culture and economy
The Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are generally characterized as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers."[8] Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardized system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.
The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilization, on the other hand, were highly standardized, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated,"[8] as well as "fowl for fighting".[9] Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralized administration for each city, though not the whole civilization, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.[10]
What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.[11] Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).[12] Furthermore, rates of cranio-facial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilization collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety, a basic feature of hierarchical societies worldwide.[12]
Archaeology
The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:[4]
- Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC.
- Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC.
- Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC.
- Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC.
- Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC.
By far the most exquisite and obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.[ఆధారం చూపాలి] Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilization iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.మూస:Or?[ఆధారం చూపాలి]
In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.[13] [14] Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu".[13] Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.
పాద పీఠికలు
- ప్రారంభపు రేడియో కర్బన డేటింగ్ విధానం, వెబ్ లో వ్రాయబడినది, 2725+-185 క్రీ.పూ. లేదా 3338, 3213, 3203 క్రీ.పూ. calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BCE. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986-1990: A multidisciplanary approach to Third Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29-59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.
- Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BCE.
- మొహంజో దారో is another major city of the same period, located in సింధ్ province of పాకిస్తాన్.
- ధోలవిరా ఒక ప్రాచీన మెట్రోపాలిటన్ నగరం. The Harappans used roughly the same size bricks and weights as were used in other Indus cities, such as Mohenjo Daro and Dholavira. These cities were well planned with wide streets, public and private wells, drains, bathing platforms and reservoirs. One of its most well-known structures is the so-called Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro.
మూలాలు
- ↑ Basham, A. L. 1968. Review of A Short History of Pakistan by A. H. Dani (with an introduction by I. H. Qureshi). Karachi: University of Karachi Press. 1967 Pacific Affairs 41(4) : 641-643.
- ↑ Basham, A. L.; Dani, D. H. (Winter 1968–1969). "(Review of) A Short History of Pakistan: Book One: Pre-Muslim Period". Pacific Affairs. 41 (4): 641–643. doi:10.2307/2754608. JSTOR 2754608.
- ↑ Fagan, Brian (2003). People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory. Pearson. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-13-111316-9.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 ఉల్లేఖన లోపం: చెల్లని
<ref>ట్యాగు;unescoఅనే పేరుగల ref లలో పాఠ్యమేమీ ఇవ్వలేదు - ↑ Tahir, Zulqernain. 26 May 2005. Probe body on Harappa park, Dawn. Retrieved 13 January 2006. Archived 11 మార్చి 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Beck, Roger B. (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ↑ Kenoyer, J.M., 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from Harappa Pakistan, World Archaeology, 29(2), pp. 260-280, High definition archaeology
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Library of Congress: Country Studies. 1995. Harappan Culture. Retrieved 13 January 2006.
- ↑ [1] Poultry: Identification, Fabrication, Utilization by Thomas Schneller – Cengage Learning, 28 September 2009 – page 16
- ↑ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. New York: Norton. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.
- ↑ Robbins Schug, Gwen (2012). "A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa". International Journal of Paleopathology. 2 (2–3): 136–147. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012. PMID 29539378.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Robbins Schug, Gwen (2013). "Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization". PLoS ONE. 8 (12): e84814. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084814. PMC 3866234.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ 13.0 13.1 Subramaniam, T. S. (May 1, 2006). ""Discovery of a century" in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ↑ Subramaniam, T. S. (May 1, 2006). "Significance of Mayiladuthurai find". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 30 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-23.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (help)
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