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/* నియోలిథికు 1 - మట్టిపాత్రల పూర్వ నియోలిథికు ఏ (పి.పి.ఎన్.ఎ) *
పంక్తి 51: పంక్తి 51:


The Chalcolithic (Stone-Bronze) period began about 4500 BC, then the [[Bronze Age]] began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.{{cn|date=June 2019}}
The Chalcolithic (Stone-Bronze) period began about 4500 BC, then the [[Bronze Age]] began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.{{cn|date=June 2019}}
== Periods by region ==
<!--This happened mostly by the *beginning* of the Upper Paleolithic, or perhaps during its early phase, in any case long before anything even remotely relevant to the Neolithic period.
By the end of the [[Upper Paleolithic]], all [[archaic human]] species had become extinct (or subsumed into the lineage of [[anatomically modern humans]] via [[Archaic human admixture with modern humans|cross-breeding]]).
-->
===Western Asia===
==== Fertile Crescent ====
[[File:20100923 amman37.JPG|thumb|right|[['Ain Ghazal Statues]] found at [['Ain Ghazal]] in [[Jordan]], are considered to be one of the earliest large-scale representations of the human form dating back to around 7250&nbsp;BC.]]
Around 10,000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] (PPNA) appeared in the Fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Bellwood|2004|p=384}} Around 10,700–9400&nbsp;BC a settlement was established in [[Tell Qaramel]], {{convert|10|mi}} north of [[Aleppo]]. The settlement included two temples dating to 9650&nbsp;BC.<ref name="eduskrypt">[http://www.eduskrypt.pl/yet_another_sensational_discovery_by_polish_archaeologists_in_syria-info-6775.html Yet another sensational discovery by polish archaeologists in Syria]. eduskrypt.pl. 21 June 2006</ref> Around 9000&nbsp;BC during the PPNA, one of the world's first towns, [[Tell es-Sultan|Jericho]], appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone wall and contained a population of 2,000–3,000 people and a massive stone tower.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9043547/Jericho "Jericho"], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> Around 6400&nbsp;BC the [[Halaf culture]] appeared in Syria and Northern Mesopotamia.

In 1981 a team of researchers from the [[Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée]], including [[Jacques Cauvin]] and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics.<ref name="boustani">Haïdar Boustani, M., [http://www.usj.edu.lb/mpl/pdf/1.pdf The Neolithic of Lebanon in the context of the Near East: State of knowledge] (in French), Annales d'Histoire et d'Archaeologie, Universite Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth, Vol. 12–13, 2001–2002. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.</ref> In 2002 [[Danielle Stordeur]] and [[Frédéric Abbès]] advanced this system with a division into five periods.
# [[Natufian]] between 12,000 and 10,200&nbsp;BC,
# [[Khiamian]] between 10,200 and 8800&nbsp;BC, [[PPNA]]: [[Sultanian]] (Jericho), [[Mureybet]]ian,
# Early PPNB (''PPNB ancien'') between 8800 and 7600&nbsp;BC, middle PPNB (''PPNB moyen'') between 7600 and 6900&nbsp;BC,
# Late PPNB (''PPNB récent'') between 7500 and 7000&nbsp;BC,
# A PPNB (sometimes called PPNC) transitional stage (''PPNB final'') in which Halaf and [[dark faced burnished ware]] begin to emerge between 6900 and 6400&nbsp;BC.<ref>Stordeur, Danielle., Abbès Frédéric., [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/bspf_0249-7638_2002_num_99_3_12712 Du PPNA au PPNB : mise en lumière d'une phase de transition à Jerf el Ahmar (Syrie)], Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, Volume 99, Issue 3, pp. 563–595, 2002</ref>
They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8800 and 8600&nbsp;BC at sites like [[Jerf el Ahmar]] and [[Tell Aswad]].<ref name="exoriente">[http://www.exoriente.org/associated_projects/ppnd_summary.php PPND – the Platform for Neolithic Radiocarbon Dates – Summary]. exoriente. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.</ref>

==== Southern Mesopotamia ====
Alluvial plains ([[Sumer]]/[[Elam]]). Low rainfall makes [[irrigation]] systems necessary. [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] culture from 6,900 BC.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

=== North Africa ===
[[File:African cave paintings.jpg|thumb|Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes]]

Domestication of [[sheep]] and [[goats]] reached [[Egypt]] from the Near East possibly as early as 6000&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = Sites with Holocene dung deposits in the Eastern Desert of Egypt: Visited by herders? |date = July 2010|pages = 818–828 |volume = 74 |issue = 7 |doi = 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.04.014|url = http://www.elenamarinova.net/publications/LinseeleMarinovaVanNeerVermeersch2009_JAE.pdf |last = Linseele |first = V. |journal = Journal of Arid Environments|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://factsanddetails.com/world.php?itemid=1506 |title=EARLY DOMESTICATED ANIMALS |date=March 2011 |accessdate=5 September 2013 |website=Facts and Details |last=Hays |first=Jeffrey |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021222544/http://factsanddetails.com/world.php?itemid=1506 |archivedate=21 October 2013 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = The Origins and Development of African Livestock |last = Blench |first = Roger |publisher = Routledge |year = 1999 |isbn = 978-1-84142-018-9 |location = |pages = |last2 = MacDonald |first2 = Kevin C}}</ref> [[Graeme Barker]] states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium BC in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange.<ref>{{cite book |last = Barker |first = Graeme |title = The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why Did Foragers Become Farmers? |url = https://books.google.com/?id=-Z2imAEACAAJ&pg=PA292 |accessdate = 3 December 2011 |date = 25 March 2009| publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-0-19-955995-4 |pages = 292–293 }}</ref> Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |author = Alexandra Y. Aĭkhenvalʹd |author2=Robert Malcolm Ward Dixon |title = Areal Diffussion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics |year = 2006 |publisher = Oxford University Press, USA |isbn = 978-0-19-928308-8 |page = 35 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Fekri A. Hassan |title = Droughts, food and culture: ecological change and food security in Africa's later prehistory |url = https://books.google.com/?id=kIPDE7FnODIC&pg=PA164| accessdate = 3 December 2011| year = 2002 |publisher = Springer |isbn = 978-0-306-46755-4 |pages = 164– }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Shillington |first = Kevin |title = Encyclopedia of African history: A-G |url = https://books.google.com/?id=Ftz_gtO-pngC&pg=PA521 |accessdate = 3 December 2011| year = 2005 |publisher = CRC Press |isbn = 978-1-57958-245-6 |pages = 521– }}</ref>

=== Sub-Saharan Africa ===
{{See||Pastoral Neolithic|Savanna Pastoral Neolithic}}

=== Europe ===
{{Main|Neolithic Europe}}

[[File:Golemata Majka.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|Female figure from [[Tumba Madžari]], [[North Macedonia]]]]
[[File:European-late-neolithic-english.svg|thumb|Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in [[Neolithic Europe]], {{circa}} 3500&nbsp;BC]]
[[File:Skara Brae house 1 5.jpg|thumb|[[Skara Brae]], Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)]]

In southeast [[Neolithic Europe|Europe]] agrarian societies first appeared in the [[7th millennium BC]], attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in [[Vashtëmi]], southeastern [[Albania]] and dating back to 6500&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite web | author=Dawn Fuller| date=April 16, 2012 | title=UC research reveals one of the earliest farming sites in Europe| publisher=Phys.org| url=http://phys.org/news/2012-04-uc-reveals-earliest-farming-sites.html| accessdate=April 18, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | date=April 16, 2012 | title=One of Earliest Farming Sites in Europe Discovered| website=ScienceDaily| url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120416113013.htm| accessdate=April 18, 2012 }}</ref> In Northwest Europe it is much later, typically lasting just under 3,000 years from c. 4500 BC&ndash;1700 BC.

Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000&nbsp;BC,<ref>[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_A11a.html Female figurine, c. 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece]. Macedonian-heritage.gr. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.</ref> and in Central Europe by around 5800&nbsp;BC ([[La Hoguette#Archeology|La Hoguette]]). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the [[Sesklo]] culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to [[Kőrös culture|Starčevo-Körös]] (Cris), [[Linearbandkeramik]], and [[Vinča culture|Vinča]]. Through a combination of [[cultural diffusion]] and [[human migration|migration of peoples]], the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The [[Vinča culture]] may have created the earliest system of writing, the [[Vinča signs]], though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented [[pictograms]] and [[ideograms]] rather than a truly developed form of writing.<ref>{{cite book|title = Pre-writing in Southeastern Europe: The Sign System of the Vinča Culture ca. 4000 BC|last = Winn|first = Shan|publisher = Western Publishers|year = 1981|isbn = |location = Calgary|pages = }}</ref>

The [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]] built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300&nbsp;BC. The [[megalith]]ic temple complexes of [[Ġgantija]] on the Mediterranean island of [[Gozo Island|Gozo]] (in the Maltese archipelago) and of [[Mnajdra]] (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to around 3600&nbsp;BC. The [[Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni]], [[Paola, Malta|Paola]], Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated around 2500&nbsp;BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a [[necropolis]], the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and shows a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500&nbsp;BC, these islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of [[Bronze Age]] immigrants, a culture that [[cremation|cremated]] its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called [[dolmens]] to Malta.<ref>Daniel Cilia, [http://web.infinito.it/utenti/m/malta_mega_temples/linetime.html "Malta Before Common Era", in ''The Megalithic Temples of Malta'']. Retrieved 28 January 2007.</ref> In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from [[Sicily]] because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found there.<ref>Piccolo, Salvatore (2013) ''Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily,'' Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Brazen Head Publishing, pp. 33-34 {{ISBN|978-0-9565106-2-4}}</ref>

=== South and East Asia ===
Settled life, encompassing the transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism, began in South Asia in the region of [[Balochistan]], Pakistan, around 7,000 BCE.<ref name=coningham-young-1>{{Citation | last1 =Coningham | first1 =Robin |author1link=Robin Coningham | last2 =Young | first2 =Ruth | year =2015 | title =The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} Quote: ""Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000&nbsp;BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."</ref><ref name=fisher1>{{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2}} Quote: "page 33: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map&nbsp;3.1). From as early as 7000&nbsp;BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."</ref><ref name=dyson1>{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8}}, Quote: "(p 29) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000&nbsp;years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500&nbsp;years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."</ref> At the site of [[Mehrgarh]], Balochistan, presence can be documented of the domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed by that of goats, sheep, and cattle.<ref name="Wright2009-p=44">{{citation|last=Wright|first=Rita P.|authorlink=Rita P. Wright|title=The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwgFPQAACAAJ&pg=PA44|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-57652-9|pages=44, 51}}</ref> In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' that the oldest (and first ''early Neolithic'') evidence for the drilling of teeth ''[[in vivo]]'' (using [[bow drill]]s and [[flint]] tips) was found in Mehrgarh.<ref name="CoppaBondioli2006">{{cite journal|last1=Coppa|first1=A.|last2=Bondioli|first2=L.|last3=Cucina|first3=A.|last4=Frayer|first4=D. W.|last5=Jarrige|first5=C.|last6=Jarrige|first6=J. -F.|last7=Quivron|first7=G.|last8=Rossi|first8=M.|last9=Vidale|first9=M.|last10=Macchiarelli|first10=R.|title=Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry|journal=Nature|volume=440|issue=7085|year=2006|pages=755–756|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/440755a}}</ref>

In South India, the Neolithic began by 6500&nbsp;BC and lasted until around 1400&nbsp;BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ash mounds{{clarify|date=February 2019}} from 2500&nbsp;BC in [[Karnataka]] region, expanded later to [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=TREES AND WOODLANDS OF SOUTH INDIA: ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES|last=Eleni Asouti and Dorian Q Fuller|year=2007|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref>

In East Asia, the earliest sites include the [[Nanzhuangtou]] culture around 9500–9000&nbsp;BC,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/109/10/3726.full|title=Early millet use in northern China|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=109|issue=10|pages=3726–3730|author=Xiaoyan Yang|accessdate=15 January 2015|doi=10.1073/pnas.1115430109|pmid=22355109|year=2012|pmc=3309722}}</ref> [[Pengtoushan culture]] around 7500–6100&nbsp;BC, and [[Peiligang culture]] around 7000–5000&nbsp;BC.

The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of [[West Papua (region)|West Papua]] (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone [[adzes|adze]] and axes are used in the present day ({{As of|2008|lc=yes}}) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail.

In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in [[Munam-ri]], [[Goseong, Gangwon|Goseong]], [[Gangwon Province (South Korea)|Gangwon Province]], [[South Korea]], which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia.<ref>The Archaeology News Network. 2012. [http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.fr/2012/06/neolithic-farm-field-found-in-south.html "Neolithic farm field found in South Korea"].</ref> "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the [[Korean Peninsula]]".<ref>''[[The Korea Times]]'' (2012). [https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2012/06/117_113810.html "East Asia's oldest remains of agricultural field found in Korea"].</ref> The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000&nbsp;BC. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric [[earthenware]], [[jade]] earrings, among other items in the area". The research team will perform [[accelerator mass spectrometry]] (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site.

=== The Americas ===
In [[Mesoamerican chronology|Mesoamerica]], a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America [[List of archaeological periods (North America)|different terms]] are used such as [[Formative stage]] instead of mid-late Neolithic, [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic Era]] instead of Early Neolithic and [[Paleo-Indians|Paleo-Indian]] for the preceding period.<ref name="W&P">{{cite book |first1 = Gordon R. |last1 = Willey |first2 = Philip |last2 = Phillips |title = Method and Theory in American Archaeology |year = 1957 |publisher = University of Chicago Press |isbn = 978-0-226-89888-9 }}</ref> The Formative stage is equivalent to the [[Neolithic Revolution]] period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 AD when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on [[dryland farming]] of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.<ref name="NRSW">{{cite journal |authors = Kohler TA, M Glaude, JP Bocquet-Appel and Brian M Kemp |title = The Neolithic Demographic Transition in the North American Southwest |journal = [[American Antiquity]] |year = 2008 |volume = 73 |issue = 4 |pages = 645–669 |doi=10.1017/s000273160004734x}}</ref> In later periods cities of considerable size developed, and some metallurgy by 700 BCE.<ref>A. Eichler, G. Gramlich, T. Kellerhals, L. Tobler, Th. Rehren & M. Schwikowski (2017). "Ice-core evidence of earliest extensive copper metallurgy in the Andes 2700 years ago"</ref>

===Australia===
Australia, in contrast to [[New Guinea]], has generally been held not to have had a Neolithic period, with a hunter-gatherer lifestyle continuing until the arrival of Europeans. This view can be challenged in terms of the definition of agriculture, but "Neolithic" remains a rarely-used and not very useful concept in discussing [[Australian prehistory]].<ref>White, Peter, [http://museum.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/10.%20White.pdf "Revisiting the ‘Neolithic Problem’ in Australia" PDF], 2006</ref>


== నవీన శిలా యుగంలో దశలు ==
== నవీన శిలా యుగంలో దశలు ==

10:01, 6 ఆగస్టు 2019 నాటి కూర్పు

నియోలిథికు [1] (లిస్టెనిను "న్యూ స్టోను ఏజి" అని కూడా పిలుస్తారు) రాతి యుగం చివరి విభాగం సుమారు 12,000 సంవత్సరాల క్రితం ప్రారంభమైంది. " ఎపిపాలియోలిథికు నియరు ఈస్టులో " వ్యవసాయం మొదటి పరిణామాలు కనిపించాయి. తరువాత ప్రపంచంలోని ఇతర ప్రాంతాలకు విస్తరించాయి. ఈ విభాగం సుమారు 6,500 సంవత్సరాల క్రితం (క్రీ.పూ. 4500) నుండి చాల్‌కోలిథికు పరివర్తన కాలం వరకు కొనసాగింది. ఇది లోహశాస్త్రం అభివృద్ధి ద్వారా గుర్తించబడింది. ఇది కాంస్య యుగం, ఇనుప యుగంలకు దారితీసింది. ఉత్తర ఐరోపాలో నియోలిథికు క్రీ.పూ 1700 వరకు కొనసాగింది. చైనాలో ఇది క్రీ.పూ 1200 వరకు విస్తరించింది. ప్రపంచంలోని ఇతర ప్రాంతాలు (న్యూ వరల్డుతో సహా) " ఐరోపియన్ కాంటాక్టు " వరకు నియోలిథికు అభివృద్ధి దశలో విస్తృతంగా ఉన్నాయి.[2]

నియోలిథికు ప్రవర్తన సాంస్కృతిక లక్షణాలు, మార్పుల పురోగతిని కలిగి ఉంటుంది. వీటిలో అడవి, దేశీయ పంటలు, జంతువుల మచ్చిక చేసుకుని పెంపుడు జంతువులుగా వాడడం ఉన్నాయి.[a]


నియోలిథికు అనే పదం గ్రీకు నియోసు (అంటే "కొత్త"), (లాథోసు"రాయి") నుండి వచ్చింది. దీని అర్ధం "కొత్త రాతియుగం". ఈ పదాన్ని సరు జాను లుబ్బాకు 1865 లో మూడు-కాలపరిమితి వ్యవస్థను పేర్కొనడానికి ఉపయోగించారు.[3]

నవీన శిలా యుగం నాడు ఉపయోగించిన రాళ్ళు, మరియు ఇతర పరికరాలు.

ప్రారంభం

Approximate centers of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution and its spread in prehistory: the Fertile Crescent (11,000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9,000 BP) and the New Guinea Highlands (9,000–6,000 BP), Central Mexico (5,000–4,000 BP), Northern South America (5,000–4,000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (5,000–4,000 BP, exact location unknown), eastern North America (4,000–3,000 BP).[4]

ఎ.ఎస్.పి.ఆర్.ఒ. కాలక్రమానుసారం నియోలిథికు క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 10,200 లో లెవాంటులో ప్రారంభమైంది. ఇది నాటుఫియను సంస్కృతి నుండి ఉద్భవించింది. అడవి తృణధాన్యాలు ఉపయోగించడం వ్యవసాయం ప్రారంభదశగా అభివృద్ధి అయింది. నాటుఫియను కాలం లేదా "ప్రోటో-నియోలిథికు" క్రీ.పూ 12,500 నుండి 9,500 వరకు కొనసాగింది. ఇది క్రీ.పూ 10,200–8800 నాటి ప్రొటో - నియోలిథికు (పిపిఎన్ఎ) తో అతివ్యాప్తి చెందడానికి తీసుకోబడింది. నాటుఫియన్లు వారి ఆహారంలో అడవి తృణధాన్యాలపై ఆధారపడటం, వారిలో నిశ్చల జీవన విధానం ప్రారంభమైంది. యంగరు డ్రైయసుతో (క్రీ.పూ 10,000 గురించి) సంబంధం ఉన్న వాతావరణ మార్పులు ప్రజలను వ్యవసాయాన్ని అభివృద్ధి చేసేలా వత్తిడి చేశాయని భావిస్తున్నారు.

క్రీ.పూ 10,200–8800 నాటికి లెవాంటులో వ్యవసాయ సంఘాలు పుట్టుకొచ్చాయి. ఇవి ఆసియా మైనరు, ఉత్తర ఆఫ్రికా, ఉత్తర మెసొపొటేమియాకు వ్యాపించాయి. మెసొపొటేమియా క్రీ.పూ 10,000 నుండి నియోలిథికు విప్లవం ప్రారంభ పరిణామాల ప్రదేశంగా ఉంది.

ప్రారంభ నియోలిథికు వ్యవసాయం పరిమితం అయింది. ఇందులో ఐనుకార్ను గోధుమలు, చిరుధాన్యాలు, స్పెల్టు, కుక్కలను మచ్చిక చేయడం, గొర్రెలు, మేకలను ఉంచడం ఉన్నాయి. క్రీ.పూ 6900–6400 నాటికి, ఇందులో పెంపుడు పశువులు, పందులు, శాశ్వతంగా లేదా కాలానుగుణంగా నివసించే స్థావరాల స్థాపన, కుండల వాడకం ఉన్నాయి. [b]

నియోలిథికు ఈ సాంస్కృతిక అంశాలన్నీ ఒకే క్రమంలో ప్రతిచోటా కనిపించలేదు: నియరు ఈస్టులోని తొలి వ్యవసాయ సంఘాలు కుండలను ఉపయోగించలేదు. ఆఫ్రికా, దక్షిణ ఆసియా, ఆగ్నేయాసియా వంటి ప్రపంచంలోని ఇతర ప్రాంతాలలో స్వతంత్ర పెంపకం సంఘటనలు వారి స్వంత ప్రాంతీయ విలక్షణమైన నియోలిథికు సంస్కృతులకు దారితీశాయి. ఇవి ఐరోపా, నైరుతి ఆసియాలోని వారి నుండి స్వతంత్రంగా ఆవిర్భవించాయి. ప్రారంభ జపనీసూ సమాజాలు, ఇతర తూర్పు ఆసియా సంస్కృతులు వ్యవసాయాన్ని అభివృద్ధి చేయడానికి ముందు కుండలను ఉపయోగించాయి.[5][6]

మట్టిపాత్రల తయారీ దశలు

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.

క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 10 వ సహస్రాబ్దిలో మధ్యప్రాచ్యంలో నియోలిథికుగా గుర్తించబడిన సంస్కృతులు కనిపించడం ప్రారంభించాయి.[7] ప్రారంభ అభివృద్ధి లెవాంటులో (ఉదా., ప్రీ-పాటరీ నియోలిథికు ఎ, ప్రీ-పాటరీ నియోలిథికు బి) జరిగింది. అక్కడ నుండి తూర్పు, పడమర వైపు వ్యాపించింది. నియోలిథికు సంస్కృతులు క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 8000 నాటికి ఆగ్నేయ అనటోలియా, ఉత్తర మెసొపొటేమియాలో ధృవీకరించబడ్డాయి.[ఆధారం చూపాలి]

చైనాలోని హెబీ ప్రావింసులోని యిక్సియను సమీపంలో ఉన్న చరిత్రపూర్వ బీఫుడి ప్రాంతం క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 6000–5000 నాటి సిషాను, జింగులాంగ్వా సంస్కృతులతో సమకాలీన సంస్కృతి శేషాలను కలిగి ఉంది. తైహాంగు పర్వతాలకు తూర్పున ఉన్న నియోలిథికు సంస్కృతులు, రెండు ఉత్తర చైనా సంస్కృతుల మధ్య ఉన్న పురావస్తు అంతరాన్ని నింపాయి. మొత్తం తవ్విన ప్రాంతం 1,200 చదరపు గజాల కంటే అధికం (1,000 హ 2; 0.10 హెక్టార్లు), ప్రాతాం వద్ద నియోలిథికు ఫలితాల సేకరణలో రెండు దశలు ఉన్నాయి.[8]

నియోలిథికు 1 - మట్టిపాత్రల పూర్వ నియోలిథికు ఏ (పి.పి.ఎన్.ఎ)

నియోలిథికు 1 (పిపిఎన్ఎ) కాలం సుమారు క్రీ.పూ 10,000 లో లెవాంటులో ప్రారంభమైంది.[7] క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 9500 నాటి ఆగ్నేయ టర్కీలోని " గోబెక్లి టేపే వద్ద " ఒక ఆలయ ప్రాంతం ఈ కాలానికి ప్రారంభంగా పరిగణించబడుతుంది. ఈ స్థలాన్ని వేట-సేకరణ ఆధారిత జీవనం గడిపే ఆగ్నేయ టర్కీలోని తెగలు అభివృద్ధి చేశాయి. దీనికి సమీపంలో శాశ్వత గృహాలు ఋజువులు లేవు. ఇది మానవ నిర్మిత పురాతన ప్రార్థనా ప్రాంతం.[9]ఇది 25 ఎకరాల (10 హెక్టార్లు) విస్తీర్ణంలో కనీసం ఏడు రాతి వృత్తాలు, జంతువులు, కీటకాలు, పక్షులతో చెక్కబడిన సున్నపురాయి స్తంభాలను కలిగి ఉంటాయి. స్తంభాలను రూపొందించడానికి వందలాది మంది రాతి ఉపకరణాలను ఉపయోగించి పనిచేసారు. ఇవి పైకప్పులకు మద్దతు ఇస్తాయి. క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 9500–9000 నాటి ఇతర ప్రారంభ పిపిఎన్ఎ ప్రాంతాలు " టెల్ ఎస్-సుల్తాన్ " (పురాతన జెరిఖో), వెస్టు బ్యాంకు (ముఖ్యంగా ఐన్ మల్లాహా, నహలు ఓరెను, క్ఫరు హహోరేషు), జోర్డాను లోయలోని గిల్గాలు, లెబనాన్లోని బైబ్లోస్లలో కనుగొనబడ్డాయి. నియోలిథికు 1 ప్రారంభం తహూనియనులో వ్యాప్తి చెందింది.[ఆధారం చూపాలి]

నియోలిథికు 1 ప్రధాన పురోగతి నిజమైన వ్యవసాయం. ప్రోటో-నియోలిథికు నాటుఫియను సంస్కృతులలో అడవి తృణధాన్యాలు పండించబడ్డాయి. బహుశా ప్రారంభ విత్తనాల ఎంపిక, విత్తనాలను తిరిగి నాటడం సంభవించాయి. ధాన్యం పిండిలో వేయబడింది. ఎమ్మరు గోధుమలు పెంపకం చేయబడ్డాయి. జంతువులను మచ్చిక చేసుకుని మందలుగా పెంచడం సంభవించి ఉంటాయి.[ఆధారం చూపాలి]

2006 లో ఒక ఇంట్లో క్రీస్తుపూర్వం 9400 నాటి జెరిఖోలోని అత్తి పండ్ల అవశేషాలు కనుగొనబడ్డాయి. అత్తి పండ్లను పురుగుల ద్వారా పరాగసంపర్కం చేయబడలేదు. అందువల్ల చెట్లు కోత నుండి మాత్రమే పునరుత్పత్తి చేయగలవు. ఈ సాక్ష్యం అత్తి పండ్లను మొట్టమొదటిగా పండించిన పంట అని, వ్యవసాయ సాంకేతిక పరిజ్ఞానం ఆవిష్కరణను సూచిస్తుంది. ఇది మొదటి ధాన్యం సాగుకు శతాబ్దాల ముందు జరిగింది.[10]

వృత్తాకార గృహాలతో, నాటుఫియన్ల మాదిరిగానే, ఒకే గదులతో, స్థావరాలు మరింత శాశ్వతంగా మారాయి. అయితే ఈ ఇళ్ళు మొట్టమొదటిసారిగా మట్టితో తయారు చేయబడ్డాయి. ఈ స్థావరం చుట్టూ రాతి గోడ, బహుశా రాతి టవరు (జెరిఖోలో ఉన్నట్లు) ఉన్నాయి. గోడ సమీప సమూహాల నుండి రక్షణగా, వరదలు నుండి రక్షణగా లేదా జంతువులను రాయడానికి ఉపయోగపడింది. కొన్ని ఆవరణలు ధాన్యం, మాంసం నిల్వను కూడా సూచిస్తాయి.[11]

నియోలిథికు 2 - మాట్టిపాత్రల పూర్వ నియోలిథికు బి (పి.పి.ఎన్.బి)

Female and male figurines; 9000-7000 BC; gypsum with bitumen and stone inlays; from Tell Fekheriye (Al-Hasakah Governorate of Syria); University of Chicago Oriental Institute (USA)

The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8800 BC according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, West Bank).[7] As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin.[ఆధారం చూపాలి] A settlement of 3,000 inhabitants was found in the outskirts of Amman, Jordan. Considered to be one of the largest prehistoric settlements in the Near East, called 'Ain Ghazal, it was continuously inhabited from approximately 7250 BC to approximately 5000 BC.[12]

Settlements have rectangular mud-brick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse could have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.[ఆధారం చూపాలి]

నియోలిథికు 3 మట్టిపాత్రల నియోలిథికు (పి.ఎన్)

The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6,400 BC in the Fertile Crescent.[7] By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). This period has been further divided into PNA (Pottery Neolithic A) and PNB (Pottery Neolithic B) at some sites.[13]

The Chalcolithic (Stone-Bronze) period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.[ఆధారం చూపాలి]

Periods by region

Western Asia

Fertile Crescent

'Ain Ghazal Statues found at 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, are considered to be one of the earliest large-scale representations of the human form dating back to around 7250 BC.

Around 10,000 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the Fertile Crescent.[7] Around 10,700–9400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 మైళ్లు (16 కి.మీ.) north of Aleppo. The settlement included two temples dating to 9650 BC.[14] Around 9000 BC during the PPNA, one of the world's first towns, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone wall and contained a population of 2,000–3,000 people and a massive stone tower.[15] Around 6400 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Syria and Northern Mesopotamia.

In 1981 a team of researchers from the Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, including Jacques Cauvin and Oliver Aurenche divided Near East neolithic chronology into ten periods (0 to 9) based on social, economic and cultural characteristics.[16] In 2002 Danielle Stordeur and Frédéric Abbès advanced this system with a division into five periods.

  1. Natufian between 12,000 and 10,200 BC,
  2. Khiamian between 10,200 and 8800 BC, PPNA: Sultanian (Jericho), Mureybetian,
  3. Early PPNB (PPNB ancien) between 8800 and 7600 BC, middle PPNB (PPNB moyen) between 7600 and 6900 BC,
  4. Late PPNB (PPNB récent) between 7500 and 7000 BC,
  5. A PPNB (sometimes called PPNC) transitional stage (PPNB final) in which Halaf and dark faced burnished ware begin to emerge between 6900 and 6400 BC.[17]

They also advanced the idea of a transitional stage between the PPNA and PPNB between 8800 and 8600 BC at sites like Jerf el Ahmar and Tell Aswad.[18]

Southern Mesopotamia

Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Low rainfall makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 6,900 BC.[ఆధారం చూపాలి]

North Africa

Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes

Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6000 BC.[19][20][21] Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium BC in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases as part of strategies that still relied heavily on fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants" and suggests that these subsistence changes were not due to farmers migrating from the Near East but was an indigenous development, with cereals either indigenous or obtained through exchange.[22] Other scholars argue that the primary stimulus for agriculture and domesticated animals (as well as mud-brick architecture and other Neolithic cultural features) in Egypt was from the Middle East.[23][24][25]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Further information: Pastoral Neolithic and Savanna Pastoral Neolithic

Europe

ప్రధాన వ్యాసం: Neolithic Europe
Female figure from Tumba Madžari, North Macedonia
Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in Neolithic Europe, సుమారు 3500 BC
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)

In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared in the 7th millennium BC, attested by one of the earliest farming sites of Europe, discovered in Vashtëmi, southeastern Albania and dating back to 6500 BC.[26][27] In Northwest Europe it is much later, typically lasting just under 3,000 years from c. 4500 BC–1700 BC.

Anthropomorphic figurines have been found in the Balkans from 6000 BC,[28] and in Central Europe by around 5800 BC (La Hoguette). Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are the Sesklo culture in Thessaly, which later expanded in the Balkans giving rise to Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramik, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though archaeologist Shan Winn believes they most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing.[29]

The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built enormous settlements in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine from 5300 to 2300 BC. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to around 3600 BC. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated around 2500 BC; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and shows a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. After 2500 BC, these islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta.[30] In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found there.[31]

South and East Asia

Settled life, encompassing the transition from foraging to farming and pastoralism, began in South Asia in the region of Balochistan, Pakistan, around 7,000 BCE.[32][33][34] At the site of Mehrgarh, Balochistan, presence can be documented of the domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed by that of goats, sheep, and cattle.[35] In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of teeth in vivo (using bow drills and flint tips) was found in Mehrgarh.[36]

In South India, the Neolithic began by 6500 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ash mounds[విడమరచి రాయాలి] from 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu.[37]

In East Asia, the earliest sites include the Nanzhuangtou culture around 9500–9000 BC,[38] Pengtoushan culture around 7500–6100 BC, and Peiligang culture around 7000–5000 BC.

The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone adze and axes are used in the present day (as of 2008) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail.

In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam-ri, Goseong, Gangwon Province, South Korea, which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia.[39] "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding that the discovery reveals that the history of agricultural cultivation at least began during the period on the Korean Peninsula".[40] The farm was dated between 3600 and 3000 BC. Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses were also found. "In 2002, researchers discovered prehistoric earthenware, jade earrings, among other items in the area". The research team will perform accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating to retrieve a more precise date for the site.

The Americas

In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era instead of Early Neolithic and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period.[41] The Formative stage is equivalent to the Neolithic Revolution period in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In the southwestern United States it occurred from 500 to 1200 AD when there was a dramatic increase in population and development of large villages supported by agriculture based on dryland farming of maize, and later, beans, squash, and domesticated turkeys. During this period the bow and arrow and ceramic pottery were also introduced.[42] In later periods cities of considerable size developed, and some metallurgy by 700 BCE.[43]

Australia

Australia, in contrast to New Guinea, has generally been held not to have had a Neolithic period, with a hunter-gatherer lifestyle continuing until the arrival of Europeans. This view can be challenged in terms of the definition of agriculture, but "Neolithic" remains a rarely-used and not very useful concept in discussing Australian prehistory.[44]

నవీన శిలా యుగంలో దశలు

  • 1వ దశః క్రీ.పూ. 25 వేల నుండి 18 వేల వరకు
  • 2వ దశః క్రీ.పూ. 18 వేల నుండి 15 వేల మధ్య కాలం
  • 3వ దశః క్రీ.పూ. 15 వేల నుండి 5 వేల మధ్య కాలం

మానవుడు ఆహార సేకరణ దశ నుండి ఉత్పత్తి దశకు చేరుకున్న కాలం: నవీన శిలాయుగం

  • వ్యవసాయం, పశుపోషణ, దుస్తులు, కుమ్మరిసారె, రాతి విగ్రహాలు, చిత్రకళ మొదలైన అన్నీ సాధ్యమైన కాలం:

నవీన శిలాయుగం

  • నవీన శిలాయుగాన్ని నాగరికతా విప్లవం అని వర్ణిం చిన చరిత్రకారుడు:

గార్డెన్‌చైల్డ్

  • రాతి పనిముట్లను మానువుడు నునుపుగా నమోదు చేసుకున్న కాలం:

నవీన శిలాయుగపు తొలిదశలో (25,000 బి.సి- 18,000)

  • మానవుడు ఇళ్లను నవీన శిలాయుగపు రెండవ దశలో (క్రీ.పూ. 18, 000-15,000) నిర్మించుకున్నాడు.
  • మానవుడు కుమ్మరిసారెను నవీన శిలాయుగపు మూడవ దశలో (క్రీ.పూ.15 వేలు-5 వేలు)లో కను గొన్నాడు.

మూలాలు

  1. ↑ "Neolithic: definition of Neolithic in Oxford dictionary (British & World English)".
  2. ↑ Morelle, Rebecca (21 June 2019). "old stone tools pre-date earliest human". South African History Online.
  3. ↑ మూస:Cite OED
  4. ↑ Diamond, J.; Bellwood, P. (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science. 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1013.4523. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734.
  5. ↑ Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-521-77670-7.
  6. ↑ Xiaohong Wu. "Early Pottery at 20,000 Years Ago in Xianrendong Cave, China". Sciencemag.org. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Bellwood 2004, p. 384.
  8. ↑ "New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 — The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS". Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. April 28, 2005. Retrieved September 18, 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ↑ Scham, Sandra (November 2008). "The World's First Temple". Archaeology. 61 (6). Archaeological Institute of America: 23.
  10. ↑ Kislev, Mordechai E.; Hartmann, Anat; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (June 2, 2006). "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley". Science. 312 (5778). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1372–1374. doi:10.1126/science.1125910. PMID 16741119.
  11. ↑ "Neolithic Age".
  12. ↑ Feldman, Keffie. "Ain-Ghazal (Jordan) Pre-pottery Neolithic B Period pit of lime plaster human figures". Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World. Brown University. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
  13. ↑ Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet; Goring-Morris, A. Nigel; Belfer-Cohen, Anna (2013-11-01). "The Southern Levant (Cisjordan) During the Neolithic Period". The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant (in ఇంగ్లీష్). doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199212972.013.011. ISBN 9780199212972.
  14. ↑ Yet another sensational discovery by polish archaeologists in Syria. eduskrypt.pl. 21 June 2006
  15. ↑ "Jericho", Encyclopædia Britannica
  16. ↑ Haïdar Boustani, M., The Neolithic of Lebanon in the context of the Near East: State of knowledge (in French), Annales d'Histoire et d'Archaeologie, Universite Saint-Joseph, Beyrouth, Vol. 12–13, 2001–2002. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
  17. ↑ Stordeur, Danielle., Abbès Frédéric., Du PPNA au PPNB : mise en lumière d'une phase de transition à Jerf el Ahmar (Syrie), Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, Volume 99, Issue 3, pp. 563–595, 2002
  18. ↑ PPND – the Platform for Neolithic Radiocarbon Dates – Summary. exoriente. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
  19. ↑ Linseele, V.; et al. (July 2010). "Sites with Holocene dung deposits in the Eastern Desert of Egypt: Visited by herders?" (PDF). Journal of Arid Environments. 74 (7): 818–828. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.04.014.
  20. ↑ Hays, Jeffrey (March 2011). "EARLY DOMESTICATED ANIMALS". Facts and Details. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ Blench, Roger; MacDonald, Kevin C (1999). The Origins and Development of African Livestock. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-84142-018-9.
  22. ↑ Barker, Graeme (25 March 2009). The Agricultural Revolution in Prehistory: Why Did Foragers Become Farmers?. Oxford University Press. pp. 292–293. ISBN 978-0-19-955995-4. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  23. ↑ Alexandra Y. Aĭkhenvalʹd; Robert Malcolm Ward Dixon (2006). Areal Diffussion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-19-928308-8.
  24. ↑ Fekri A. Hassan (2002). Droughts, food and culture: ecological change and food security in Africa's later prehistory. Springer. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-0-306-46755-4. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  25. ↑ Shillington, Kevin (2005). Encyclopedia of African history: A-G. CRC Press. pp. 521–. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  26. ↑ Dawn Fuller (April 16, 2012). "UC research reveals one of the earliest farming sites in Europe". Phys.org. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
  27. ↑ "One of Earliest Farming Sites in Europe Discovered". ScienceDaily. April 16, 2012. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
  28. ↑ Female figurine, c. 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece. Macedonian-heritage.gr. Retrieved on 2011-12-03.
  29. ↑ Winn, Shan (1981). Pre-writing in Southeastern Europe: The Sign System of the Vinča Culture ca. 4000 BC. Calgary: Western Publishers.
  30. ↑ Daniel Cilia, "Malta Before Common Era", in The Megalithic Temples of Malta. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
  31. ↑ Piccolo, Salvatore (2013) Ancient Stones: The Prehistoric Dolmens of Sicily, Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Brazen Head Publishing, pp. 33-34 ISBN 978-0-9565106-2-4
  32. ↑ Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE, Cambridge University Press Quote: ""Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."
  33. ↑ Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "page 33: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."
  34. ↑ Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8, Quote: "(p 29) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."
  35. ↑ Wright, Rita P. (2009), The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society, Cambridge University Press, pp. 44, 51, ISBN 978-0-521-57652-9
  36. ↑ Coppa, A.; Bondioli, L.; Cucina, A.; Frayer, D. W.; Jarrige, C.; Jarrige, J. -F.; Quivron, G.; Rossi, M.; Vidale, M.; Macchiarelli, R. (2006). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry". Nature. 440 (7085): 755–756. doi:10.1038/440755a. ISSN 0028-0836.
  37. ↑ Eleni Asouti and Dorian Q Fuller (2007). TREES AND WOODLANDS OF SOUTH INDIA: ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES.
  38. ↑ Xiaoyan Yang (2012). "Early millet use in northern China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (10): 3726–3730. doi:10.1073/pnas.1115430109. PMC 3309722. PMID 22355109. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
  39. ↑ The Archaeology News Network. 2012. "Neolithic farm field found in South Korea".
  40. ↑ The Korea Times (2012). "East Asia's oldest remains of agricultural field found in Korea".
  41. ↑ Willey, Gordon R.; Phillips, Philip (1957). Method and Theory in American Archaeology. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-89888-9.
  42. ↑ "The Neolithic Demographic Transition in the North American Southwest". American Antiquity. 73 (4): 645–669. 2008. doi:10.1017/s000273160004734x. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  43. ↑ A. Eichler, G. Gramlich, T. Kellerhals, L. Tobler, Th. Rehren & M. Schwikowski (2017). "Ice-core evidence of earliest extensive copper metallurgy in the Andes 2700 years ago"
  44. ↑ White, Peter, "Revisiting the ‘Neolithic Problem’ in Australia" PDF, 2006


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