వెనుజ్వేలా: కూర్పుల మధ్య తేడాలు

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పంక్తి 120: పంక్తి 120:


<ref name="ICH_1958_386">{{cite journal |year=1958 |title=Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos |publisher=Instituto de Cultura Hispánica (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional) |page=386 |language=Spanish}}</ref>
<ref name="ICH_1958_386">{{cite journal |year=1958 |title=Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos |publisher=Instituto de Cultura Hispánica (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional) |page=386 |language=Spanish}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Main article|History of Venezuela}}

===Pre-Columbian history===
{{double image|right|Campo de Mérida.JPG|298|Timote-Cuica languages.png|112|Timoto-Cuica territory, in present-day [[Mérida State|Mérida, Venezuela]].|Timoto and Cuica toponyms.}}
Evidence exists of human habitation in the area now known as Venezuela from about 15,000 years ago; [[leaf]]-shaped tools from this period, together with chopping and [[Plane (tool)|planoconvex]] scraping implements, have been found exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in western Venezuela.{{sfn|Kipfer|2000|p=91}} [[Late Pleistocene]] hunting artifacts, including spear tips, have been found at a similar series of sites in northwestern Venezuela known as "El Jobo"; according to [[radiocarbon dating]], these date from 13,000 to 7,000 BC.{{sfn|Kipfer|2000|p=172}}

It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest; it has been estimated at around one million.{{sfn|Wunder|2003|p=130}} In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the [[Kalina people|Kalina]] (Caribs), [[Auaké]], [[Caquetio]], [[Mariche]], and [[Timoto-Cuicas]]. The Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela; with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks.<ref name=mahoney>Mahoney 89</ref> Their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops. Regional crops included potatoes and [[ulluco]]s.<ref name=art>[http://en.amigosprecolombino.es/cultures/central-america-and-intermedia/venezuela "Venezuela."] ''Friends of the Pre-Columbian Art Museum.'' (retrieved 9 July 2011)</ref> They left behind works of art, particularly anthropomorphic ceramics, but no major monuments. They spun vegetable fibers to weave into textiles and mats for housing. They are credited with having invented the [[arepa]], a staple in [[Venezuelan cuisine]].

After the conquest, the population dropped markedly, mainly through the spread of new infectious diseases from Europe.{{sfn|Wunder|2003|p=130}} Two main north-south axes of pre-Columbian population were present, who cultivated [[maize]] in the west and [[manioc]] in the east.{{sfn|Wunder|2003|p=130}} Large parts of the ''llanos'' were cultivated through a combination of [[slash and burn]] and permanent settled agriculture.{{sfn|Wunder|2003|p=130}}

=== Colonization ===
{{Main article|Spanish colonization of the Americas|Colonial Venezuela}}
[[File:Musterung-Welser-Armada.png|thumb|The [[Welser]] Armada exploring Venezuela]]
In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, [[Christopher Columbus]] sailed near the Orinoco Delta and landed in the [[Gulf of Paria]].{{sfn|Dickey|1892|p=103}} Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course eastward, Columbus expressed in a letter to Isabella and Ferdinand that he must have reached Heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise):
{{quote|Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.{{sfn|Zamora|1993|pages=Voyage to Paradise}}}}

His certainty of having attained Paradise made him name this region 'Land of Grace', a phrase that has become the country's nickname.

Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522, establishing its first permanent South American settlement in the {{As of |2008 |alt=present-day}} city of [[Cumaná]]. In the 16th century, Venezuela was contracted as a concession by the King of Spain to the German Welser banking family (Klein-Venedig, 1528–1546). Native ''[[cacique]]s'' (leaders) such as [[Guaicaipuro]] (''circa'' 1530–1568) and [[Tamanaco]] (died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but the newcomers ultimately subdued them; Tamanaco was put to death by order of Caracas' founder, [[Diego de Losada]].<ref name="UNE">{{cite web|publisher=Universidad Nueva Esparta |url=http://www.une.edu.ve/hatillo/historia.htm |title=Alcaldía del Hatillo: Historia |accessdate=10 March 2007 |language=Spanish |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.https://wayback.archive.org/web/19970702185758/http://www.une.edu.ve/hatillo/historia.htm |archivedate=2 July 1997 }}</ref>

In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization, indigenous peoples, such as many of the [[Mariches]], themselves descendants of the Kalina, converted to [[Roman Catholicism]]. Some of the resisting tribes or leaders are commemorated in place names, including Caracas, [[Chacao Municipality|Chacao]], and [[Los Teques]]. The early colonial settlements focused on the northern coast,{{sfn|Wunder|2003|p=130}} but in the mid-18th century, the Spanish pushed farther inland along the [[Orinoco River]]. Here, the [[Ye'kuana]] (then known as the Makiritare) organized serious resistance in 1775 and 1776.{{sfn|Gott|2005|p=203}}

Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into [[New Andalusia Province]]. Administered by the [[Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo]] from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous [[Captaincy General of Venezuela|Captaincy General]] starting in 1777. The town of Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of [[La Guaira]] whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against [[pirate]]s and a more fertile and healthy climate.{{sfn|Ewell|1984|p=4}}

=== Independence and 19th century ===
{{Main article|Venezuelan War of Independence}}
[[File:Firma del acta de independencia de Venezuela.jpg|thumb|left|The signing of Venezuela's independence, by [[Martín Tovar y Tovar]]]]
[[File:BatallaCarabobo01.JPG|thumb|The [[Battle of Carabobo]], during the [[Venezuelan War of Independence]]]]

After a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela, under the leadership of [[Francisco de Miranda]], a Venezuelan marshal who had fought in the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]], [[Venezuelan Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] on 5 July 1811.<ref>{{cite web |last=Minster |first=Christopher |url=http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/independenceinvenezuela/p/10april19venezuela.htm |title=April 19, 1810: Venezuela's Declaration of Independence |publisher=''About'' |accessdate=30 June 2015}}</ref> This began the Venezuelan War of Independence. A devastating [[1812 Caracas earthquake|earthquake that struck Caracas in 1812]], together with the rebellion of the Venezuelan ''[[llanero]]s'', helped bring down the first Venezuelan republic.{{sfn|Chasteen|2001|p=103}} A [[Second Republic of Venezuela|second Venezuelan republic]], proclaimed on 7 August 1813, lasted several months before being crushed, as well.<ref>{{cite web |last=Left |first=Sarah |title=Simon Bolivar |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2002/apr/16/netnotes.venezuela |work=The Guardian |date=16 April 2002 |accessdate=30 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Sovereignty]] was only attained after [[Simón Bolívar]], aided by [[José Antonio Páez]] and [[Antonio José de Sucre]], won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821.{{sfn|Gregory|1992|pages=89–90}} On 24 July 1823, [[José Prudencio Padilla]] and [[Rafael Urdaneta]] helped seal Venezuelan independence with their victory in the [[Battle of Lake Maracaibo]].<ref name="ciawfb">{{cite web |url=http://www.ciaworldfactbook.us/south-america/venezuela.html |title=Venezuela |publisher=''CIA World Factbook'' |accessdate=30 June 2015}}</ref> New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded [[Gran Colombia]].{{sfn|Gregory|1992|pages=89–90}}

Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador and later become the second president of [[Bolivia]]. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez became the first president of the new republic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab55 |title=History of Venezuela |publisher=''History World'' |accessdate=30 June 2015}}</ref> Between one-quarter and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of warfare which by 1830 was estimated at about 800,000.<ref name="Caudillismo">"[http://countrystudies.us/venezuela/5.htm Venezuela – The Century of Caudillismo]". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref>
[[File:Abolicion de la esclavitud en Venezuela.jpg|thumb|left|[[José Gregorio Monagas]] abolished slavery in 1854.]]
[[File:Bolivar Arturo Michelena.jpg|thumb|Simón Bolívar, ''El Libertador'', Hero of the Venezuelan War of Independence]]

The colors of the [[Flag of Venezuela|Venezuelan flag]] are yellow, blue, and red: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the blood shed by the heroes of independence.<ref>{{cite news |title=200 años como símbolo de soberanía |publisher=Consulado General de Venezuela en Canarias |url=http://www.consuladodevenezuela.es/contenido.php?idNot=216 |accessdate=30 November 2010 |language=Spanish}}</ref>

[[Slavery]] in Venezuela was abolished in 1854.<ref name="Caudillismo" /> Much of Venezuela's 19th-century history was characterized by political turmoil and [[dictator]]ial rule,<ref name="LOC_2005">{{cite web |publisher=Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) |title=Country Profile: Venezuela |year=2005 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Venezuela.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=10 March 2007}}</ref> including the Independence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained the presidency three times and served a total of 11 years between 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the [[Federal War]] (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died, in a country with a population of not much more than a million people. In the latter half of the century, [[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]], another ''caudillo'', served a total of 13 years between 1870 and 1887, with three other presidents interspersed.

In 1895, a longstanding dispute with Great Britain about the territory of Guayana Esequiba, which Britain claimed as part of [[British Guiana]] and Venezuela saw as Venezuelan territory, erupted into the [[Venezuela Crisis of 1895]]. The dispute became a diplomatic crisis when Venezuela's lobbyist [[William Lindsay Scruggs|William L. Scruggs]] sought to argue that British behavior over the issue violated the United States' [[Monroe Doctrine]] of 1823, and used his influence in Washington, D.C., to pursue the matter. Then, US President [[Grover Cleveland]] adopted a broad interpretation of the doctrine that did not just simply forbid new European colonies, but declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere.{{sfn|Zakaria|1999|pages=145–146}} Britain ultimately accepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its terms was able to persuade the US on many of the details. A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.<ref name="Humphreys">{{cite journal |authorlink=Robert Arthur Humphreys |author=Humphreys, R. A. |year=1966 |doi=10.2307/3678723 |title=Anglo-American Rivalries and the Venezuela Crisis of 1895. Presidential Address to the Royal Historical Society |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=17 |pages=131–164}}</ref>

In 1899, [[Cipriano Castro]], assisted by his friend [[Juan Vicente Gómez]], seized power in Caracas, marching an army from his base in the Andean state of [[Táchira]]. Castro defaulted on Venezuela's considerable foreign debts, and declined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up in Venezuela's civil wars. This led to the [[Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903]], in which Britain, Germany, and Italy imposed a naval blockade of several months, before international arbitration at the new [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[The Hague]] was agreed. In 1908, [[Dutch-Venezuela War|another dispute]] broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolved when Castro left for medical treatment in Germany and was promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez.

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=== 20th century ===
{{refimprove|section|date=July 2017}}
The discovery of massive [[oil field|oil deposits]] in Lake Maracaibo during World War I proved to be pivotal for Venezuela, and transformed the basis of its economy from a heavy dependence on agricultural exports. It prompted an economic boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935, Venezuela's per capita [[gross domestic product]] was Latin America's highest.{{sfn|Crow|1980|pages=616–617}} Gómez benefited handsomely from this, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped him centralize the Venezuelan state and develop its authority.

He remained the most powerful man in Venezuela until his death in 1935, although at times he ceded the presidency to others. The ''gomecista'' dictatorship system largely continued under [[Eleazar López Contreras]], but from 1941, under [[Isaías Medina Angarita]], was relaxed, with the latter granting a range of reforms, including the legalization of all political parties. After [[World War II]], [[immigration]] from Southern Europe (mainly from Spain, [[Italo-venezuelans|Italy]], Portugal, and France) and poorer Latin American countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society.
[[File:Rómulo Betancourt, 1961.jpg|thumb|left|[[Rómulo Betancourt]] (President 1945–1948/1959-1964), one of the major democracy activists of Venezuela]]
In 1945, a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina Angarita and ushered in [[El Trienio Adeco|a three-year period of democratic rule]] under the mass membership [[Democratic Action]], initially under Rómulo Betancourt, until [[Rómulo Gallegos]] won the [[Venezuelan presidential election, 1947]] (generally believed to be the first free and fair elections in Venezuela). Gallegos governed until overthrown by a military junta led by [[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]] and Gallegos' Defense Minister [[Carlos Delgado Chalbaud]] in the [[1948 Venezuelan coup d'état|1948 Venezuelan ''coup d'état'']].

Pérez Jiménez was the most powerful man in the junta (though Chalbaud was its titular president), and was suspected of being behind the death in office of Chalbaud, who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950. When the junta unexpectedly lost the [[Venezuelan presidential election, 1952|election it held in 1952]], it ignored the results and Pérez Jiménez was installed as President, where he remained until 1958.

The military dictator Pérez Jiménez was forced out on 23 January 1958.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ve.html |title=Venezuela |accessdate=23 July 2010 |publisher=CIA |date=1 July 2010 |work=The World Factbook}}</ref> In an effort to consolidate the young democracy, the major political parties (with the notable exception of the [[Communist Party of Venezuela]]) signed the [[Punto Fijo Pact]]. Democratic Action and [[COPEI]] would dominate the political landscape for four decades.

In the 1960s, substantial guerilla movements occurred, including the [[Armed Forces of National Liberation (Venezuela)|Armed Forces of National Liberation]] and the [[Revolutionary Left Movement (Venezuela)|Revolutionary Left Movement]], which had split from Democratic Action in 1960. Most of these movements laid down their arms under [[Rafael Caldera]]'s presidency (1969–74); Caldera had won the [[Venezuelan presidential election, 1968|1968 election]] for COPEI, being the first time a party other than Democratic Action took the presidency through a democratic election.

The election of Carlos Andrés Pérez [[Venezuelan presidential election, 1973|in 1973]] coincided with the [[1973 oil crisis]], in which Venezuela's income exploded as [[oil prices]] soared; oil industries were nationalized in 1976. This led to massive increases in public spending, but also increases in external debts, which continued into the 1980s when the collapse of oil prices during the 1980s crippled the Venezuelan economy. As the government started to devalue the currency in February 1983 to face its financial obligations, Venezuelans' real standards of living fell dramatically. A number of failed economic policies and increasing corruption in government led to rising poverty and crime, worsening social indicators, and increased political instability.<ref name="Schuyler_2001_10">{{cite journal |last=Schuyler |first=George W. |work=The Policy Studies Organization |title=Health and Neoliberalism: Venezuela and Cuba |year=2001 |page=10}}</ref>

Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis in which hundreds died in the Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups d'état in 1992,<ref name="BBCprofile">{{cite news |title= Profile: Hugo Chavez |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1925236.stm |accessdate=5 June 2007 | work= BBC News | date=5 December 2002}}</ref> and the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez (re-elected in 1988) for corruption in 1993. Coup leader Hugo Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by president [[Rafael Caldera#Amnesty to the 1992 coup participants|Rafael Caldera]], with a clean slate and his political rights reinstated.

=== Bolivarian Revolution ===
{{Main article|Bolivarian Revolution}}
The Bolivarian Revolution refers to a [[left-wing politics|leftist]] [[social movement]] and political process in Venezuela led by the late Venezuelan president, Hugo Chávez, the founder of the [[Fifth Republic Movement]] and later the [[United Socialist Party of Venezuela]]. The "Bolivarian Revolution" is named after [[Simón Bolívar]], an early 19th-century Venezuelan and [[Latin America]]n revolutionary leader, prominent in the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] in achieving the independence of most of northern South America from Spanish rule. According to Chávez and other supporters, the "Bolivarian Revolution" seeks to build a mass movement to implement [[Bolivarianism]]—[[popular democracy]], economic independence, equitable distribution of revenues, and an end to [[political corruption]]—in Venezuela. They interpret Bolívar's ideas from a [[socialism|socialist]] perspective.

==== Hugo Chávez ====
{{Main article|Presidency of Hugo Chávez}}
[[File:Chavez-WSF2005.jpg|thumb|left|Hugo Chávez, president from 1999 until his death in 2013.]]
A collapse in confidence in the existing parties led to Chávez being elected president in 1998, and the subsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela. Chávez also initiated [[Bolivarian missions]], programs aimed at helping the poor.

In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power in the [[2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt]] following popular demonstrations by his opponents,<ref>The coup installed chamber of commerce leader [[Pedro Carmona]].{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1927678.stm |title=Profile: Pedro Carmona |date=27 May 2002 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=6 February 2009}}</ref> but he was returned to power after two days as a result of demonstrations by poor Chávez supporters in Caracas and actions by the military.{{sfn|Cannon|2004|p=295}}{{sfn|López Maya|2005|p=16}}

Chávez also remained in power after an all-out national strike that lasted [[Venezuelan general strike of 2002–2003|from December 2002 to February 2003]], including a strike/lockout in the state oil company [[PDVSA]]. The strike produced severe economic dislocation, with the country's GDP falling 27% during the first four months of 2003, and costing the oil industry $13.3 billion.<ref name="J386">Jones, Bart (2008), ''Hugo! The Hugo Chávez Story From Mud Hut to Perpetual Revolution'', London: The Bodley Head, p386</ref> Capital flight before and during the strike led to the reimposition of currency controls (which had been abolished in 1989), managed by the [[CADIVI]] agency. In the subsequent decade, the government was forced into several currency devaluations.<ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2013/02/2013296490217208.html "Venezuela devalues currency against US dollar"]. Aljazeera.com (9 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref><ref>Cardenas, Jose R. (26 February 2013) [http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/feb/26/hugo-chavezs-legacy-of-economic-chaos/ "CARDENAS: Hugo Chavez's legacy of economic chaos"]. Washingtontimes.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/399ce5c6-751f-11e2-a9f3-00144feabdc0.html "The bill for years of mismanagement is coming due"]. Ft.com (12 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21572202-return-hugo-ch%C3%A1vez-his-country-suggests-one-way-or-another-end-venezuelas "Venezuela The homecoming"]. Economist.com (23 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref><ref>Farzad, Roben. (15 February 2013) [http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-02-15/venezuelas-double-edged-bolivar-devaluation "Venezuela's Double-Edged Devaluation"]. Businessweek.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref> These devaluations have done little to improve the situation of the Venezuelan people who rely on imported products or locally produced products that depend on imported inputs while dollar-denominated oil sales account for the vast majority of Venezuela's exports.<ref>Mander, Benedict. (10 February 2013) [http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/12e9f32e-739e-11e2-9e92-00144feabdc0.html "Venezuelan devaluation sparks panic"]. Ft.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref> The profits of the oil industry have been lost to "social engineering" and corruption, instead of investments needed to maintain oil production.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-10-07/how-venezuela-came-away-with-no-dollars-from-sales-andes-credit.html |title= How Venezuela Got No Dollars From $65 Billion Bond Sales |last1=Boyd |first1=Sebastian |date=7 October 2014 |website=www.bloomberg.com |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |accessdate=8 October 2014}}</ref>

Chávez survived several further political tests, including an [[Venezuelan recall referendum, 2004|August 2004 recall referendum]]. He was elected for another term [[Venezuelan presidential election, 2006|in December 2006]] and re-elected for a third term in October 2012. However, he was never sworn in for his third period, due to medical complications. Chávez died on 5 March 2013 after a nearly two-year fight with cancer.<ref>Neuman, William (5 March 2013) [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/06/world/americas/as-chavez-worsens-venezuela-expels-two-us-diplomats.html?hp&_r=0 "Chávez Dies, Leaving Sharp Divisions in Venezuela"]. New York Times.</ref> The presidential election that took place on Sunday, 14 April 2013, was the first since Chávez took office in 1999 in which his name did not appear on the ballot.<ref>[http://venezuelablog.tumblr.com/ Venezuelan Politics and Human Rights]. Venezuelablog.tumblr.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.</ref>

Western journalists and economists have argued that Venezuela under Hugo Chávez suffered "one of the worst cases of [[Dutch Disease]] in the world" due to the Bolivarian government's large dependence on oil sales.<ref name="FPmarch2013">{{cite news |last1=Corrales |first1=Javier |title=The House That Chavez Built |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/03/07/the-house-that-chavez-built/ |accessdate=6 February 2015 |agency=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=7 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Worstall |first1=Tim |title=Venezuela's Minimum Wage Is Now $20 A Month; Congratulations To Bolivarian Socialism |url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2015/03/07/venezuelas-minimum-wage-is-now-20-a-month-congratulations-to-bolivarian-socialism/ |accessdate=24 March 2015 |agency=Forbes |date=7 March 2015}}</ref> Poverty and inflation began to increase into the 2010s.<ref name="UN">Charlie Devereux & Raymond Colitt. 7 March 2013. {{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-03-07/venezuelans-quality-of-life-improved-in-un-index-under-chavez.html |title=Venezuelans' Quality of Life Improved in UN Index Under Chavez |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |accessdate=7 March 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107050220/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-03-07/venezuelans-quality-of-life-improved-in-un-index-under-chavez.html |archivedate=7 November 2014 |deadurl=unfit }}</ref> [[Nicolás Maduro]] was elected in 2013 after the death of Chavez. Venezuela devalued its currency in February 2013 due to the rising shortages in the country,<ref>{{cite news |last=Minaya |first=Ezequiel |url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323951904578292383059267360 |title=Venezuela Devalues Its Currency – WSJ.com |publisher=Online.wsj.com |date=9 February 2013 |accessdate=30 December 2013}}{{paywall}}</ref> [[shortages in Venezuela|which included those of]] milk, flour, and other necessities. This led to an increase in malnutrition, especially among children.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lopez |first=Virginia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2013/sep/26/venezuela-food-shortages-rich-country-cia |title=Venezuela food shortages: 'No one can explain why a rich country has no food' |publisher=theguardian.com |date=26 September 2013 |accessdate=30 December 2013}}</ref><ref name="ECONeatCHAVISMO">{{cite news |title=Let them eat Chavismo The UN honours Venezuela for curbing hunger—which is actually getting worse |url=http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21654653-un-honours-venezuela-curbing-hungerwhich-actually-getting-worse-let-them-eat-chavismo |accessdate=22 July 2015 |work=[[The Economist]] |date=20 June 2015}}</ref> In 2014, Venezuela entered an [[economic recession]].<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-economy-idUSKBN0K81KV20141231|last1=Pons |first1=Corina |last2=Cawthorne |first2=Andrew |title=Recession-hit Venezuela vows New Year reforms, foes scoff |accessdate=24 March 2017 |agency=Reuters |date=30 December 2014}}</ref> In 2015, Venezuela had the world's highest inflation rate with the rate surpassing 100%, becoming the highest in the country's history.<ref name="FPblackbox">{{cite news |last1=Cristóbal Nagel |first1=Juan |title=Looking Into the Black Box of Venezuela's Economy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/07/13/looking-into-the-black-box-of-venezuelas-economy-caracas-bolivar-maduro/ |accessdate=14 July 2015 |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |date=13 July 2015}}</ref> Economic problems, as well as crime and corruption, were some of the main causes of the [[2014–17 Venezuelan protests]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Venezuela's economic nightmare takes an ugly turn |url=http://finance.fortune.cnn.com/2014/03/14/venezuela-protests-inflation/ |accessdate=28 May 2014 |newspaper=CNN Money |date=14 March 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528060618/http://finance.fortune.cnn.com/2014/03/14/venezuela-protests-inflation/ |archivedate=28 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Garreau |first=Simone |title=Venezuelan Oil Dynamics: Why The Protests Matter |url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/riskmap/2014/05/12/venezuelan-oil-dynamics-why-the-protests-matter/ |accessdate=28 May 2014 |newspaper=Forbes |date=12 May 2014}}</ref> which left more than 50 protesters killed.

==== Nicolás Maduro ====
{{further information|Nicolás Maduro}}
[[File:Nicolás Maduro crop 2015.jpeg|150px|thumbnail|right|[[Nicolás Maduro]], the current president.]]
Nicolás Maduro has been the [[President of Venezuela]] since 14 April 2013, after winning the second presidential election after Chávez's death, with 50.61% of the votes against the opposition's candidate [[Henrique Capriles Radonski]] who had 49.12% of the votes. The [[Democratic Unity Roundtable]] contested his election as fraud, and as a violation of the constitution. However, the Supreme Court of Venezuela ruled that under Venezuela's Constitution, Nicolás Maduro is the legitimate president and was invested as such by the Venezuelan [[National Assembly (Venezuela)|National Assembly]] (Asamblea Nacional).<ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuelan opposition challenges Nicolás Maduro's legitimacy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/09/venezuela-maduro-challenge |location=London |work=The Guardian |first1=Rory |last1=Carroll |first2=Virginia |last2=Lopez |date=9 March 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.vtv.gob.ve/articulos/2013/03/08/tsj-sobre-art.233-nicolas-maduro-es-presidente-encargado-con-todas-las-atribuciones-1991.html TSJ sobre Art.233: Nicolás Maduro es presidente encargado con todas las atribuciones]. vtv.gob.ve (8 March 2013).</ref><ref>[http://www.vtv.gob.ve/articulos/2013/03/08/asamblea-nacional-inicia-acto-de-juramentacion-de-nicolas-maduro-como-presidente-encargado-2780.html Asamblea Nacional tomó Juramento a Nicolás Maduro como Presidente Encargado (+Video)]. vtv.gob.ve (9 March 2013)</ref>

Beginning in February 2014, hundreds of thousands of Venezuelans have protested over high levels of criminal violence, corruption, hyperinflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goods due to policies of the federal government.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lopez |first=Linette |title=Why The United States Has Done Nothing About Venezuela |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/why-the-us-wont-touch-venezuela-2014-4 |accessdate=12 April 2014 |newspaper=Business Insider |date=11 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Protesters in Venezuela Press Government |url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304834704579401612202743396 |accessdate=12 April 2014 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=23 February 2014 |first1=Ezequiel |last1=Minaya |first2=Kejal |last2=Vyas}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuelans protest en masse in rival rallies |url=http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/02/24/venezuelans-protest-en-masse-in-rival-rallies/ |accessdate=12 April 2014 |newspaper=Borneo Post |date=24 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuela's Maduro says 2013 annual inflation was 56.2 pct |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/30/venezuela-inflation-annual-idUSL2N0K90V020131230 |accessdate=19 January 2014 |newspaper=Reuters |date=30 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuela Inflation Hits 16-Year High as Shortages Rise |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-11-07/venezuela-inflation-hits-16-year-high-as-shortages-rise.html |accessdate=16 February 2014 |newspaper=Bloomberg |date=7 November 2013 |first=Anatoly |last=Kurmanaev}}</ref> Demonstrations and riots have left over 40 fatalities in the unrest between both Chavistas and opposition protesters,<ref name="2014protests">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/17/us-venezuela-protests-idUSBREA1F0SQ20140217 |title=Venezuela's Lopez says ready for arrest at Tuesday march |last1=Wallis |first1=Daniel |last2=Chinea |first2=Eyanir |date=16 February 2014 |website=reuters.com |publisher=Thomson Reuters |accessdate=16 February 2014}}</ref> and has led to the arrest of opposition leaders such as [[Leopoldo López]]<ref name="2014protests" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Venezuela HRF Declares Leopoldo Lopez a Prisoner of Conscience and Calls for his Immediate Release |work=Human Rights Foundation |url=http://humanrightsfoundation.org/news/venezuela-hrf-declares-leopoldo-López-a-prisoner-of-conscience-and-calls-for-his-immediate-release-00355}}</ref> and [[Antonio Ledezma]].<ref name="INDEPENDENT">{{cite news |last1=Sabin |first1=Lamiat |title=Mayor Antonio Ledezma arrested and dragged out of office 'like a dog' by police in Venezuela |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/mayor-antonio-ledezma-arrested-and-dragged-out-of-office-like-a-dog-by-police-in-venezuela-10058691.html |accessdate=20 February 2015 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=20 February 2015 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sebin detuvo al alcalde Metropolitano Antonio Ledezma |url=http://www.eluniversal.com/nacional-y-politica/150219/sebin-detuvo-al-alcalde-metropolitano-antonio-ledezma |website=El Universal |accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sebin se lleva detenido al alcalde Antonio Ledezma |url=http://www.lapatilla.com/site/2015/02/19/sebin-se-lleva-detenido-al-alcalde-antonio-ledezma/ |website=La Patilla |accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Detuvieron al alcalde Antonio Ledezma |url=http://www.el-nacional.com/politica/Ledezma-denuncio-intento-allanamiento-oficina_0_577742355.html |website=El Nacional}}</ref> Human rights groups have strongly condemned the arrest of Leopoldo López.<ref>{{cite web |title=Venezuela: Human rights groups reject condemnation of jailed Leopoldo Lopez as 'baseless' |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/venezuela-human-rights-groups-reject-condemnation-jailed-leopoldo-lopez-baseless-1519333 |website=International Business Times UK |accessdate=17 November 2015}}</ref>

In the [[2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election]], the opposition gained a majority.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-06/venezuelans-to-vote-in-polls-seen-handing-congress-to-opposition|title=Venezuela Seen Handing Congress to Opposition in Sunday Vote|last=Rosati|first=Andrew|last2=Soto|first2=Noris|date=6 December 2015|website=Bloomberg L.P.|publisher=|access-date=22 August 2016}}</ref>
{{further information|Crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela|2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis}} The following year, in a July 2016 decree, President Maduro used his executive power to declare a state of economic emergency. The decree could force citizens to work in agricultural fields and farms for 60-day (or longer) periods to supply food to the country.<ref name="venezuela-decree-farm-labor">{{cite news |title=Venezuela's new decree: Forced farm work for citizens |url=http://money.cnn.com/2016/07/29/news/economy/venezuela-decree-farm-labor/ |accessdate=29 July 2016 |work=[[CNN]] |date=29 June 2016}}</ref> Colombian border crossings have been temporarily opened to allow Venezuelans to purchase food and basic household and health items in Colombia in mid-2016.<ref name="Venezuelans Cross Into Colombia In Search Of Food">{{cite news |title=Thousands Of Venezuelans Cross Into Colombia In Search Of Food And Medicine |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/venezuela-colombia-bridge-photo_us_578be683e4b0867123e1ab77 |accessdate=29 July 2016 |work=[[The Huffington Post]] |date=17 July 2016}}</ref> In September 2016, a study published in the Spanish-language ''[[Diario Las Américas]]''<ref name="Hambre en Venezuela: El 15,7% de los venezolanos se ha alimentado de residuos">{{cite news |title=Hambre en Venezuela: El 15,7% de los venezolanos se ha alimentado de residuos |url=http://www.diariolasamericas.com/america-latina/hambre-venezuela-el-157-de-los-venezolanos-se-ha-alimentado-residuos-n4102524 |accessdate=September 9, 2016 |work=[[Diario Las Américas]] |date=9 September 2016}}</ref> indicated that 15% of Venezuelans are eating "food waste discarded by commercial establishments".

In October 2016, Fox News Latino reported that during a month-long riot at the Táchira Detention Center in Caracas, 40 inmates dismembered and consumed three fellow inmates. There have been close to 200 prison riots in Venezuela in 2016, with the cause being attributed to a worsening social situation, increasing poverty, and food shortages leading to over crowded prisons.<ref name="Man claims son was eaten by fellow inmates during riot in Venezuelan prison">{{cite news |title=Man claims son was eaten by fellow inmates during riot in Venezuelan prison|url=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2016/10/14/man-claims-son-was-eaten-by-fellow-inmates-during-riot-in-venezuelan-prison/ |accessdate=15 October 2016 |publisher=[[Fox News]] |date=14 October 2016}}</ref>

In March 2017, opposition leaders branded President Nicolas Maduro a "dictator" after the Maduro-aligned Supreme Court - which had been overturning most National Assembly decisions since the opposition took control of the Congress - took over the functions of Congress, pushing a lengthy political standoff to new heights.<ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuela's Maduro decried as 'dictator' after Congress annulled |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-politics-idUSKBN17122M |accessdate=26 April 2017 |publisher=[[Reuters]] |date=31 March 2017}}</ref> However, the Supreme Court quickly backed down and reversed its decision on 1 April 2017.

On June 28, 2017, Oscar Pérez, a policeman, stole a police helicopter in Caracas, dropped [[grenade]]s onto the Supreme Court building and shot at the Interior Ministry building after creating posts on social media calling for Venezuelans to oppose "tyranny". The helicopter carried a banner reading "350 Freedom" {{emdash}} a reference to a clause in the constitution cited by opponents of Maduro to claim his government is illegitimate. Maduro denounced the attack as a "terror attack against the institutions of the country".<ref>{{cite news|title=Venezuela crisis: Helicopter launches attack on Supreme Court|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-40426642|accessdate=28 June 2017|agency=BBC|date=June 28, 2017}}</ref>


==మూలాలు==
==మూలాలు==

09:06, 4 జూలై 2017 నాటి కూర్పు

బొలివరియన్ రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ వెనుజులా (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela)[a]

  • República Bolivariana de Venezuela  (Spanish)
Flag of వెనుజులా
జండా
Coat of arms of వెనుజులా
Coat of arms
గీతం: m:en:Gloria al Bravo Pueblo
Glory to the Brave People
Location of వెనుజులా
రాజధాని
and largest city
కారకస్
అతిపెద్ద నగరంరాజధాని
జాతీయ భాషస్పానిష్[b]
జాతులు
(2011[1])
పిలుచువిధంవెనుజులియన్
ప్రభుత్వంFederal అధ్యక్ష తరహా రాజ్యాంగ
నికోలస్ మడురో
జార్జ్ అరియేజా
డియోస్దాడో కాబెల్లో
శాసనవ్యవస్థజాతీయ అసెంబ్లీ
స్వాతంత్ర్యము
• స్పెయిన్ నుండి
5 జులై 1811
• from Gran Colombia
13 జనవరి1830
• Recognized
30 March 1845
20 డిసెంబర్ 1999
విస్తీర్ణం
• మొత్తం
916,445 కి.మీ2 (353,841 చ. మై.) (33rd)
• నీరు (%)
0.32[d]
జనాభా
• 2011 census
28,946,101 (44th)
• జనసాంద్రత
30.2/చ.కి. (78.2/చ.మై.) (181st)
GDP (PPP)2013 estimate
• Total
$408.805 billion[2]
• Per capita
$13,634[2]
GDP (nominal)2013 estimate
• Total
$382 424 billion[2]
• Per capita
$11,527[2]
జినీ (2010)39[3]
medium
హెచ్‌డిఐ (2013)Increase 0.748[4]
high · 61st
ద్రవ్యంBolívar fuerte[e] (VEF)
కాల విభాగంUTC–4 (VET)
వాహనాలు నడుపు వైపుright
ఫోన్ కోడ్+58
Internet TLD.ve
  1. ^ The "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela" has been the full official title since the adoption of the new Constitution of 1999, when the state was renamed in honor of m:en:Simón Bolívar.
  2. ^ The Constitution also recognizes all indigenous languages spoken in the country.
  3. ^ Some important subgroups include those of Spanish, Italian, Amerindian, African, Portuguese, Arab and German descent.
  4. ^ Area totals include only Venezuelan-administered territory.
  5. ^ On 1 January 2008, a new bolivar was introduced, the bolívar fuerte (ISO 4217 code VEF) worth 1,000 VEB.

'

వెనుజులా Venezuela (/ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə/ ( listen) VEN-ə-ZWAYL-ə; Spanish pronunciation: [beneˈswela]) దక్షిణ అమెరికా లోని ఒక సుసంపన్న దేశము. అధికారికంగా " బొలివేరియన్ రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ వెనుజులా " అంటారు.ఫెడరల్ రిపబ్లిక్ అయిన ఇది దక్షిణ అమెరికా ఉత్తర సముద్రతీరంలో ఉంది.దేశానికి పశ్చిమ సరిహద్దులో కొలంబియా, దక్షిణ సరిహద్దులో బ్రెజిల్, తూర్పు సరిహద్దులో గయానా మరియు ఈశాన్య సరిహద్దులో " ట్రినిడాడ్ మరియు టొబాగో " ద్వీపం ఉన్నాయి.దేశ వైశాల్యం 916,445 కి.మీ2 (353,841 చ. మై.) జనసంఖ్య 3,17,75,371. దేశం అత్యంత అధికమైన జీవ వైవిద్యం కలిగి ఉంది. జీవవైవిధ్యంలో వెనుజులా ప్రపంచంలో 7వ స్థానంలో ఉంది. ఈ దేశములో అపార చమురు నిల్వలు ఉన్నాయి. ఈ దేశ అతివలు తరచుగా అందాల పోటీలలో గెలుస్తుంటారు. ప్రపంచంలోనే అత్యంత ఎత్తయిన ఏంజెల్స్ జలపాతము ఈ దేశములోనే ఉంది.[5] పశ్చిమంలో ఆండెస్ పర్వతాలు, దక్షింఅంలో అమెజాన్ బేసిన్ వర్షారణ్యాల వరకు లాస్ లానోస్ మైదానాలు మరియు మద్యభూభాగంలో కరీబియన్ సముద్రతీరాలు మరియు తూర్పుభూభాగంలో ఒరినోకో డెల్టా మీదుగా మానవనివాసాలు విస్తరించి ఉన్నాయి.ప్రస్తుతం వెనుజులా అని పిలువబడే ఈ ప్రాంతం స్థానికుల వ్యతిరేకతను అధిగమించి 1522 లో స్పెయిన్ కాలనీ రాజ్యంగా ఉండేది. 1811 లో ఇది మొదటి ఫ్రెంచి అమెరికన్ కాలనీ రాజ్యం నుండి " ఫస్ట్ రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ వెనుజులా " గా ప్రకటించబడింది. అయినప్పటికీ 1821 వరకు సురక్షిత రాజ్యంగా స్థాపించబడలేదు. అప్పటి వరకూ వెనుజులా ఫెడరల్ రిపబ్లిక్ గ్రాన్ కొలంబియాలో శాఖగా ఉంది. 1830 లో వెనుజులా ప్రత్యేకమైన పూర్తి స్వతంత్ర దేశంగా అవతరించింది. 19వ శతాబ్ధం నుండి 20వ శతాబ్ధం సగం (1958) వరకు వెనుజులా రాజకీయ అల్లర్లు మరియు నియంతృత్వ ధోరిణి మొదలైన సమస్యలను ఎదుర్కొన్నది.దేశంలో ప్రాంతీయ కౌడిల్లోస్ (సైనిక వీరులు) ఆధిఖ్యత కొనసాగింది.1958 నుండి దేశంలో డెమిక్రటిక్ ప్రభుత్వాల పాలన కొనసాగింది. 1980 మరియు 1990 లలో నెలకొన్న ఆర్ధికసంక్షోభం పలు రాజకీయ సంక్షోభాలకు దారితీసాయి.1989లో తీవ్రమైన కరకాజో తిరుగుబాటు, 1992 లో రెండు మార్లు తిరుగుబాటు ప్రయత్నాలు మరియు 1993లో ప్రభుత్వనిధులను అపహరించాడని అధ్యక్షుడు " కార్లోస్ అండ్రెస్ పెరెజ్ " కు వ్యతిరేకంగా చేసిన అభిశంశన తీర్మానం ఇందులో భాగంగా ఉన్నాయి.ప్రభుత్వం పతనం తరువాత 1998లో ఎన్నికలు నిర్వహించబడ్డాయి. 1999 లో బొలివేరియన్ విప్లవంతో వెనుజులాలో కొత్తరాజ్యాంగం రూపొందించబడింది. తరువాత దేశానికి " రిపబ్లికా బొలివేరియన్ డీ వెనుజులా " (బొలివేరియన్ రిపబ్లిక్ ఆఫ్ వెనుజులా) గా పేరు మార్పిడి జరిగింది. వెనుజులా ఒక ఫెడరల్ ప్రెసిడెంషియల్ రిపబ్లిక్. ఇందులో 23 రాష్ట్రాలు ఉన్నాయి. కాపిటల్ జిల్లాలో కారాకాస్, ఫెడరల్ డిపెండెంసీలైన ద్వీపాలు భాగంగా ఉన్నాయి.ఎస్సెక్యుబో నదికి ఉత్తరంలో ఉన్న గయానా ప్రాంతాలన్నింటినీ (1,59,500 చ.కి.మీ) వెనుజులా విలీనం చేసుకుంది. [6]లాటిన్ అమెరికన్ దేశాలలో అధికంగా నగరీకరణ చేయబడిన దేశాలలో వెనుజులా ఒకటి. [7][8] వెనుజులియన్లలో అత్యధిక ప్రజలు ఉత్తరభూభాగంలోని నగరప్రాంతాలలో నివసిస్తున్నారు. ప్రత్యేకంగా రాజధాని నగరం మరియు అతిపెద్ద వెనుజులా నగరం అయిన కారాకాస్ నగరంలో అధికంగా నివసిస్తున్నారు.

20వ శతాబ్ధంలో ఆయిల్ నిక్షేపాలు కనుగొనబడ్డాయి. అంతకు ముందు అభివృద్ధి చెందని కాఫీ మరియు కొకకయా వంటి వ్యవసాయ ఉత్పత్తుల ఎగుమతులను ఆయిల్ ఎగుమతులు ఆక్రమించి దేశాన్ని ఆర్ధికంగా అభివృద్ధి దశకు తీసుకువచ్చాయి. 1980 ఆయిల్ గ్లట్ ఋణ సంక్షోభం మరియు ఆర్ధిక సంక్షోభాలకు దారితీసింది. 1996 నాటికి ద్రవ్లోల్భణం 100% నికి చేరుకుని 1995 నాటికి పేదరికం 66% నికి చేరుకుంది.[9] 1998 నాటికి తలసరి జి.డి.పి 1963 స్థాయికి చేరుకుంది. 1978 తలసరి జి.డి..పి.లో ఇది మూడవవంతు ఉంది. [10] 2000 నాటికి ఆయిల్ ధరలు కొత అధికరించి దేశ ఆదాయం అధికరించింది.[11] తరువాత వెనుజులా ప్రభుత్వం పాపులిస్ట్ విధానాలు చేపట్టింది. ఇది వెనుజులా ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ధిక స్థితిని అభివృద్ధి చేసి కొనుగోలు శక్తిని అభివృద్ధి చేసి ఆర్ధిక అసమానతను మరియు పేదరికాన్ని తగ్గించింది.[11]

[12][13][14] అయినప్పటికి తరువాత ఈ విధానాలు వివాదాస్పదం అయ్యాయి. ఫలితంగా ఆర్ధిక వత్తిడి, పేదరికం, వ్యాధులు, శిశుమరణాలు, పోషకారలోపం మరియు నేరం అధికరించాయి. [15][16][11][17][18][19][20][21]

పేరు వెనుక చరిత్ర

According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited the Venezuelan coast. The stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola "Piccola Venezia".

[22]

The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence,

[22]

where the suffix -uela is used as a diminutive term (e.g., plaza / plazuela, cazo / cazuela); thus, the term's original sense would have been that of a "little Venice".

[23]

The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice (literally "small Venice").

However, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found indigenous people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name "Venezuela" may have evolved from the native word.

[24]

History

ప్రధాన వ్యాసం: History of Venezuela

Pre-Columbian history

Evidence exists of human habitation in the area now known as Venezuela from about 15,000 years ago; leaf-shaped tools from this period, together with chopping and planoconvex scraping implements, have been found exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in western Venezuela.[25] Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts, including spear tips, have been found at a similar series of sites in northwestern Venezuela known as "El Jobo"; according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000 to 7,000 BC.[26]

It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest; it has been estimated at around one million.[27] In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina (Caribs), Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, and Timoto-Cuicas. The Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela; with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks.[28] Their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops. Regional crops included potatoes and ullucos.[29] They left behind works of art, particularly anthropomorphic ceramics, but no major monuments. They spun vegetable fibers to weave into textiles and mats for housing. They are credited with having invented the arepa, a staple in Venezuelan cuisine.

After the conquest, the population dropped markedly, mainly through the spread of new infectious diseases from Europe.[27] Two main north-south axes of pre-Columbian population were present, who cultivated maize in the west and manioc in the east.[27] Large parts of the llanos were cultivated through a combination of slash and burn and permanent settled agriculture.[27]

Colonization

ప్రధాన వ్యాసంలు: Spanish colonization of the Americas and Colonial Venezuela
The Welser Armada exploring Venezuela

In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco Delta and landed in the Gulf of Paria.[30] Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course eastward, Columbus expressed in a letter to Isabella and Ferdinand that he must have reached Heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise):

Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.[31]

His certainty of having attained Paradise made him name this region 'Land of Grace', a phrase that has become the country's nickname.

Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522, establishing its first permanent South American settlement in the present-day city of Cumaná. In the 16th century, Venezuela was contracted as a concession by the King of Spain to the German Welser banking family (Klein-Venedig, 1528–1546). Native caciques (leaders) such as Guaicaipuro (circa 1530–1568) and Tamanaco (died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but the newcomers ultimately subdued them; Tamanaco was put to death by order of Caracas' founder, Diego de Losada.[32]

In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization, indigenous peoples, such as many of the Mariches, themselves descendants of the Kalina, converted to Roman Catholicism. Some of the resisting tribes or leaders are commemorated in place names, including Caracas, Chacao, and Los Teques. The early colonial settlements focused on the northern coast,[27] but in the mid-18th century, the Spanish pushed farther inland along the Orinoco River. Here, the Ye'kuana (then known as the Makiritare) organized serious resistance in 1775 and 1776.[33]

Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy General starting in 1777. The town of Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of La Guaira whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against pirates and a more fertile and healthy climate.[34]

Independence and 19th century

ప్రధాన వ్యాసం: Venezuelan War of Independence
The signing of Venezuela's independence, by Martín Tovar y Tovar
The Battle of Carabobo, during the Venezuelan War of Independence

After a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela, under the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal who had fought in the American Revolution and the French Revolution, declared independence on 5 July 1811.[35] This began the Venezuelan War of Independence. A devastating earthquake that struck Caracas in 1812, together with the rebellion of the Venezuelan llaneros, helped bring down the first Venezuelan republic.[36] A second Venezuelan republic, proclaimed on 7 August 1813, lasted several months before being crushed, as well.[37]

Sovereignty was only attained after Simón Bolívar, aided by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821.[38] On 24 July 1823, José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta helped seal Venezuelan independence with their victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo.[39] New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colombia.[38]

Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador and later become the second president of Bolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez became the first president of the new republic.[40] Between one-quarter and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of warfare which by 1830 was estimated at about 800,000.[41]

José Gregorio Monagas abolished slavery in 1854.
Simón Bolívar, El Libertador, Hero of the Venezuelan War of Independence

The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue, and red: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the blood shed by the heroes of independence.[42]

Slavery in Venezuela was abolished in 1854.[41] Much of Venezuela's 19th-century history was characterized by political turmoil and dictatorial rule,[43] including the Independence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained the presidency three times and served a total of 11 years between 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the Federal War (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died, in a country with a population of not much more than a million people. In the latter half of the century, Antonio Guzmán Blanco, another caudillo, served a total of 13 years between 1870 and 1887, with three other presidents interspersed.

In 1895, a longstanding dispute with Great Britain about the territory of Guayana Esequiba, which Britain claimed as part of British Guiana and Venezuela saw as Venezuelan territory, erupted into the Venezuela Crisis of 1895. The dispute became a diplomatic crisis when Venezuela's lobbyist William L. Scruggs sought to argue that British behavior over the issue violated the United States' Monroe Doctrine of 1823, and used his influence in Washington, D.C., to pursue the matter. Then, US President Grover Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the doctrine that did not just simply forbid new European colonies, but declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere.[44] Britain ultimately accepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its terms was able to persuade the US on many of the details. A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue, and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana.[45]

In 1899, Cipriano Castro, assisted by his friend Juan Vicente Gómez, seized power in Caracas, marching an army from his base in the Andean state of Táchira. Castro defaulted on Venezuela's considerable foreign debts, and declined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up in Venezuela's civil wars. This led to the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903, in which Britain, Germany, and Italy imposed a naval blockade of several months, before international arbitration at the new Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague was agreed. In 1908, another dispute broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolved when Castro left for medical treatment in Germany and was promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez.

Juan Vicente Gómez ruled Venezuela for 27 years (1908–1935).
File:Gómez, 1928.jpg
Juan Vicente Gómez ruled Venezuela for 27 years (1908–1935).

20th century

The discovery of massive oil deposits in Lake Maracaibo during World War I proved to be pivotal for Venezuela, and transformed the basis of its economy from a heavy dependence on agricultural exports. It prompted an economic boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935, Venezuela's per capita gross domestic product was Latin America's highest.[46] Gómez benefited handsomely from this, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped him centralize the Venezuelan state and develop its authority.

He remained the most powerful man in Venezuela until his death in 1935, although at times he ceded the presidency to others. The gomecista dictatorship system largely continued under Eleazar López Contreras, but from 1941, under Isaías Medina Angarita, was relaxed, with the latter granting a range of reforms, including the legalization of all political parties. After World War II, immigration from Southern Europe (mainly from Spain, Italy, Portugal, and France) and poorer Latin American countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society.

Rómulo Betancourt (President 1945–1948/1959-1964), one of the major democracy activists of Venezuela

In 1945, a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina Angarita and ushered in a three-year period of democratic rule under the mass membership Democratic Action, initially under Rómulo Betancourt, until Rómulo Gallegos won the Venezuelan presidential election, 1947 (generally believed to be the first free and fair elections in Venezuela). Gallegos governed until overthrown by a military junta led by Marcos Pérez Jiménez and Gallegos' Defense Minister Carlos Delgado Chalbaud in the 1948 Venezuelan coup d'état.

Pérez Jiménez was the most powerful man in the junta (though Chalbaud was its titular president), and was suspected of being behind the death in office of Chalbaud, who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950. When the junta unexpectedly lost the election it held in 1952, it ignored the results and Pérez Jiménez was installed as President, where he remained until 1958.

The military dictator Pérez Jiménez was forced out on 23 January 1958.[47] In an effort to consolidate the young democracy, the major political parties (with the notable exception of the Communist Party of Venezuela) signed the Punto Fijo Pact. Democratic Action and COPEI would dominate the political landscape for four decades.

In the 1960s, substantial guerilla movements occurred, including the Armed Forces of National Liberation and the Revolutionary Left Movement, which had split from Democratic Action in 1960. Most of these movements laid down their arms under Rafael Caldera's presidency (1969–74); Caldera had won the 1968 election for COPEI, being the first time a party other than Democratic Action took the presidency through a democratic election.

The election of Carlos Andrés Pérez in 1973 coincided with the 1973 oil crisis, in which Venezuela's income exploded as oil prices soared; oil industries were nationalized in 1976. This led to massive increases in public spending, but also increases in external debts, which continued into the 1980s when the collapse of oil prices during the 1980s crippled the Venezuelan economy. As the government started to devalue the currency in February 1983 to face its financial obligations, Venezuelans' real standards of living fell dramatically. A number of failed economic policies and increasing corruption in government led to rising poverty and crime, worsening social indicators, and increased political instability.[48]

Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis in which hundreds died in the Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups d'état in 1992,[49] and the impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez (re-elected in 1988) for corruption in 1993. Coup leader Hugo Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by president Rafael Caldera, with a clean slate and his political rights reinstated.

Bolivarian Revolution

ప్రధాన వ్యాసం: Bolivarian Revolution

The Bolivarian Revolution refers to a leftist social movement and political process in Venezuela led by the late Venezuelan president, Hugo Chávez, the founder of the Fifth Republic Movement and later the United Socialist Party of Venezuela. The "Bolivarian Revolution" is named after Simón Bolívar, an early 19th-century Venezuelan and Latin American revolutionary leader, prominent in the Spanish American wars of independence in achieving the independence of most of northern South America from Spanish rule. According to Chávez and other supporters, the "Bolivarian Revolution" seeks to build a mass movement to implement Bolivarianism—popular democracy, economic independence, equitable distribution of revenues, and an end to political corruption—in Venezuela. They interpret Bolívar's ideas from a socialist perspective.

Hugo Chávez

ప్రధాన వ్యాసం: Presidency of Hugo Chávez
Hugo Chávez, president from 1999 until his death in 2013.

A collapse in confidence in the existing parties led to Chávez being elected president in 1998, and the subsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela. Chávez also initiated Bolivarian missions, programs aimed at helping the poor.

In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt following popular demonstrations by his opponents,[50] but he was returned to power after two days as a result of demonstrations by poor Chávez supporters in Caracas and actions by the military.[51][52]

Chávez also remained in power after an all-out national strike that lasted from December 2002 to February 2003, including a strike/lockout in the state oil company PDVSA. The strike produced severe economic dislocation, with the country's GDP falling 27% during the first four months of 2003, and costing the oil industry $13.3 billion.[53] Capital flight before and during the strike led to the reimposition of currency controls (which had been abolished in 1989), managed by the CADIVI agency. In the subsequent decade, the government was forced into several currency devaluations.[54][55][56][57][58] These devaluations have done little to improve the situation of the Venezuelan people who rely on imported products or locally produced products that depend on imported inputs while dollar-denominated oil sales account for the vast majority of Venezuela's exports.[59] The profits of the oil industry have been lost to "social engineering" and corruption, instead of investments needed to maintain oil production.[60]

Chávez survived several further political tests, including an August 2004 recall referendum. He was elected for another term in December 2006 and re-elected for a third term in October 2012. However, he was never sworn in for his third period, due to medical complications. Chávez died on 5 March 2013 after a nearly two-year fight with cancer.[61] The presidential election that took place on Sunday, 14 April 2013, was the first since Chávez took office in 1999 in which his name did not appear on the ballot.[62]

Western journalists and economists have argued that Venezuela under Hugo Chávez suffered "one of the worst cases of Dutch Disease in the world" due to the Bolivarian government's large dependence on oil sales.[63][64] Poverty and inflation began to increase into the 2010s.[65] Nicolás Maduro was elected in 2013 after the death of Chavez. Venezuela devalued its currency in February 2013 due to the rising shortages in the country,[66] which included those of milk, flour, and other necessities. This led to an increase in malnutrition, especially among children.[67][68] In 2014, Venezuela entered an economic recession.[69] In 2015, Venezuela had the world's highest inflation rate with the rate surpassing 100%, becoming the highest in the country's history.[70] Economic problems, as well as crime and corruption, were some of the main causes of the 2014–17 Venezuelan protests,[71][72] which left more than 50 protesters killed.

Nicolás Maduro

Further information: Nicolás Maduro
Nicolás Maduro, the current president.

Nicolás Maduro has been the President of Venezuela since 14 April 2013, after winning the second presidential election after Chávez's death, with 50.61% of the votes against the opposition's candidate Henrique Capriles Radonski who had 49.12% of the votes. The Democratic Unity Roundtable contested his election as fraud, and as a violation of the constitution. However, the Supreme Court of Venezuela ruled that under Venezuela's Constitution, Nicolás Maduro is the legitimate president and was invested as such by the Venezuelan National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional).[73][74][75]

Beginning in February 2014, hundreds of thousands of Venezuelans have protested over high levels of criminal violence, corruption, hyperinflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goods due to policies of the federal government.[76][77][78][79][80] Demonstrations and riots have left over 40 fatalities in the unrest between both Chavistas and opposition protesters,[81] and has led to the arrest of opposition leaders such as Leopoldo López[81][82] and Antonio Ledezma.[83][84][85][86] Human rights groups have strongly condemned the arrest of Leopoldo López.[87]

In the 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election, the opposition gained a majority.[88]

Further information: Crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela and 2017 Venezuelan constitutional crisis

The following year, in a July 2016 decree, President Maduro used his executive power to declare a state of economic emergency. The decree could force citizens to work in agricultural fields and farms for 60-day (or longer) periods to supply food to the country.[89] Colombian border crossings have been temporarily opened to allow Venezuelans to purchase food and basic household and health items in Colombia in mid-2016.[90] In September 2016, a study published in the Spanish-language Diario Las Américas[91] indicated that 15% of Venezuelans are eating "food waste discarded by commercial establishments".

In October 2016, Fox News Latino reported that during a month-long riot at the Táchira Detention Center in Caracas, 40 inmates dismembered and consumed three fellow inmates. There have been close to 200 prison riots in Venezuela in 2016, with the cause being attributed to a worsening social situation, increasing poverty, and food shortages leading to over crowded prisons.[92]

In March 2017, opposition leaders branded President Nicolas Maduro a "dictator" after the Maduro-aligned Supreme Court - which had been overturning most National Assembly decisions since the opposition took control of the Congress - took over the functions of Congress, pushing a lengthy political standoff to new heights.[93] However, the Supreme Court quickly backed down and reversed its decision on 1 April 2017.

On June 28, 2017, Oscar Pérez, a policeman, stole a police helicopter in Caracas, dropped grenades onto the Supreme Court building and shot at the Interior Ministry building after creating posts on social media calling for Venezuelans to oppose "tyranny". The helicopter carried a banner reading "350 Freedom" — a reference to a clause in the constitution cited by opponents of Maduro to claim his government is illegitimate. Maduro denounced the attack as a "terror attack against the institutions of the country".[94]

మూలాలు

  1. ↑ "Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011" (PDF). Ine.gov.ve. p. 14. Retrieved 2012-11-25.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Venezuela". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved April 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  3. ↑ "Gini coefficient for the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela". Instituto Nacional de Estadística. 2011.
  4. ↑ "Human Development Report 2013". United Nations Development Programme. 14 March 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
  5. ↑ World Conservation Monitoring Centre of the United Nations Environment Programme (September 2004). "World Conservation Monitoring Centre of the United Nations Environment Programme". World Conservation Monitoring Centre of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP-WCMC), 2004. Species Data (unpublished, September 2004). United Nations Environment programme. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  6. ↑ "Geneva Agreement, 17 February 1966" (PDF). United Nations.
  7. ↑ South America. Encarta. Archived from the original on 21 April 2007. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
  8. ↑ "Annex tables" (PDF). World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision. United Nations. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
  9. ↑ McCaughan 2005, p. 32.
  10. ↑ Kelly & Palma 2006, p. 207.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Heritage 2002, pp. 618–621.
  12. ↑ Kevin Voigt (6 March 2013). Chavez leaves Venezuelan economy more equal, less stable. CNN. Retrieved 5 April 2014.
  13. ↑ Dan Beeton and Joe Sammut (6 December 2013). Venezuela Leads Region in Poverty Reduction in 2012, ECLAC Says. Center for Economic and Policy Research. Retrieved 5 April 2014.
  14. ↑ Venezuela Overview. The World Bank. Last updated 17 November 2014:
    • "Economic growth and the redistribution of resources associated with these missions have led to an important decline in moderate poverty, from 50% in 1998 to approximately 30% in 2012. Likewise, inequality has decreased, reducing the Gini Index from 0.49 in 1998 to 0.39 in 2012, which is among the lowest in the region."
  15. ↑ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-34983075
  16. ↑ "A New Twist on Capital Flight: Venezuela's Absurd Airfares". BloombergView. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
  17. ↑ Siegel, Robert (25 December 2014). "For Venezuela, Drop In Global Oil Prices Could Be Catastrophic". NPR. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  18. ↑ Scharfenberg, Ewald (1 February 2015). "Volver a ser pobre en Venezuela". El Pais. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
  19. ↑ Herrero, Ana Vanessa; Malkin, Elisabeth (16 January 2017). "Venezuela Issues New Bank Notes Because of Hyperinflation". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
  20. ↑ "Chamber of Commerce: 80% of Venezuelans are in poverty". El Universal. 1 April 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
  21. ↑
     •Gillespie, Patrick (12 December 2016). "Venezuela shuts border with Colombia as cash crisis escalates". CNNMoney. Retrieved 17 January 2017.

     •Gillespie, Patrick (12 April 2016). "Venezuela: the land of 500% inflation". CNNMoney. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
     •Rosati, Andrew (11 January 2017). "Venezuela's Economy Was the Worst Performing of 2016, IMF Estimates". Bloomberg. Retrieved 17 January 2017.

  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Massabié 2008, p. 153.
  23. ↑ Thomas 2005, p. 189.
  24. ↑ "Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos" (in Spanish). Instituto de Cultura Hispánica (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional). 1958: 386. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  25. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 91.
  26. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 172.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Wunder 2003, p. 130.
  28. ↑ Mahoney 89
  29. ↑ "Venezuela." Friends of the Pre-Columbian Art Museum. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  30. ↑ Dickey 1892, p. 103.
  31. ↑ Zamora 1993, pp. Voyage to Paradise.
  32. ↑ "Alcaldía del Hatillo: Historia" (in Spanish). Universidad Nueva Esparta. Archived from the original on 2 July 1997. Retrieved 10 March 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  33. ↑ Gott 2005, p. 203.
  34. ↑ Ewell 1984, p. 4.
  35. ↑ Minster, Christopher. "April 19, 1810: Venezuela's Declaration of Independence". About. Retrieved 30 June 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  36. ↑ Chasteen 2001, p. 103.
  37. ↑ Left, Sarah (16 April 2002). "Simon Bolivar". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Gregory 1992, pp. 89–90.
  39. ↑ "Venezuela". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 30 June 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  40. ↑ "History of Venezuela". History World. Retrieved 30 June 2015. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Venezuela – The Century of Caudillismo". Library of Congress Country Studies.
  42. ↑ "200 años como símbolo de soberanía" (in Spanish). Consulado General de Venezuela en Canarias. Retrieved 30 November 2010.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  43. ↑ "Country Profile: Venezuela" (PDF). Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). 2005. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  44. ↑ Zakaria 1999, pp. 145–146.
  45. ↑ Humphreys, R. A. (1966). "Anglo-American Rivalries and the Venezuela Crisis of 1895. Presidential Address to the Royal Historical Society". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 17: 131–164. doi:10.2307/3678723.
  46. ↑ Crow 1980, pp. 616–617.
  47. ↑ "Venezuela". The World Factbook. CIA. 1 July 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
  48. ↑ Schuyler, George W. (2001). "Health and Neoliberalism: Venezuela and Cuba". The Policy Studies Organization: 10.
  49. ↑ "Profile: Hugo Chavez". BBC News. 5 December 2002. Retrieved 5 June 2007.
  50. ↑ The coup installed chamber of commerce leader Pedro Carmona."Profile: Pedro Carmona". BBC. 27 May 2002. Retrieved 6 February 2009.
  51. ↑ Cannon 2004, p. 295.
  52. ↑ López Maya 2005, p. 16.
  53. ↑ Jones, Bart (2008), Hugo! The Hugo Chávez Story From Mud Hut to Perpetual Revolution, London: The Bodley Head, p386
  54. ↑ "Venezuela devalues currency against US dollar". Aljazeera.com (9 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  55. ↑ Cardenas, Jose R. (26 February 2013) "CARDENAS: Hugo Chavez's legacy of economic chaos". Washingtontimes.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  56. ↑ "The bill for years of mismanagement is coming due". Ft.com (12 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  57. ↑ "Venezuela The homecoming". Economist.com (23 February 2013). Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  58. ↑ Farzad, Roben. (15 February 2013) "Venezuela's Double-Edged Devaluation". Businessweek.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  59. ↑ Mander, Benedict. (10 February 2013) "Venezuelan devaluation sparks panic". Ft.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  60. ↑ Boyd, Sebastian (7 October 2014). "How Venezuela Got No Dollars From $65 Billion Bond Sales". www.bloomberg.com. Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
  61. ↑ Neuman, William (5 March 2013) "Chávez Dies, Leaving Sharp Divisions in Venezuela". New York Times.
  62. ↑ Venezuelan Politics and Human Rights. Venezuelablog.tumblr.com. Retrieved on 20 April 2013.
  63. ↑ Corrales, Javier (7 March 2013). "The House That Chavez Built". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  64. ↑ Worstall, Tim (7 March 2015). "Venezuela's Minimum Wage Is Now $20 A Month; Congratulations To Bolivarian Socialism". Forbes. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
  65. ↑ Charlie Devereux & Raymond Colitt. 7 March 2013. "Venezuelans' Quality of Life Improved in UN Index Under Chavez". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (help)
  66. ↑ Minaya, Ezequiel (9 February 2013). "Venezuela Devalues Its Currency – WSJ.com". Online.wsj.com. Retrieved 30 December 2013.మూస:Paywall
  67. ↑ Lopez, Virginia (26 September 2013). "Venezuela food shortages: 'No one can explain why a rich country has no food'". theguardian.com. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
  68. ↑ "Let them eat Chavismo The UN honours Venezuela for curbing hunger—which is actually getting worse". The Economist. 20 June 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015.
  69. ↑ Pons, Corina; Cawthorne, Andrew (30 December 2014). "Recession-hit Venezuela vows New Year reforms, foes scoff". Reuters. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  70. ↑ Cristóbal Nagel, Juan (13 July 2015). "Looking Into the Black Box of Venezuela's Economy". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  71. ↑ "Venezuela's economic nightmare takes an ugly turn". CNN Money. 14 March 2014. Archived from the original on 28 May 2014. Retrieved 28 May 2014. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (help)
  72. ↑ Garreau, Simone (12 May 2014). "Venezuelan Oil Dynamics: Why The Protests Matter". Forbes. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
  73. ↑ Carroll, Rory; Lopez, Virginia (9 March 2013). "Venezuelan opposition challenges Nicolás Maduro's legitimacy". The Guardian. London.
  74. ↑ TSJ sobre Art.233: Nicolás Maduro es presidente encargado con todas las atribuciones. vtv.gob.ve (8 March 2013).
  75. ↑ Asamblea Nacional tomó Juramento a Nicolás Maduro como Presidente Encargado (+Video). vtv.gob.ve (9 March 2013)
  76. ↑ Lopez, Linette (11 April 2014). "Why The United States Has Done Nothing About Venezuela". Business Insider. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  77. ↑ Minaya, Ezequiel; Vyas, Kejal (23 February 2014). "Protesters in Venezuela Press Government". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  78. ↑ "Venezuelans protest en masse in rival rallies". Borneo Post. 24 February 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  79. ↑ "Venezuela's Maduro says 2013 annual inflation was 56.2 pct". Reuters. 30 December 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
  80. ↑ Kurmanaev, Anatoly (7 November 2013). "Venezuela Inflation Hits 16-Year High as Shortages Rise". Bloomberg. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Wallis, Daniel; Chinea, Eyanir (16 February 2014). "Venezuela's Lopez says ready for arrest at Tuesday march". reuters.com. Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
  82. ↑ "Venezuela HRF Declares Leopoldo Lopez a Prisoner of Conscience and Calls for his Immediate Release". Human Rights Foundation.
  83. ↑ Sabin, Lamiat (20 February 2015). "Mayor Antonio Ledezma arrested and dragged out of office 'like a dog' by police in Venezuela". The Independent. London. Retrieved 20 February 2015.
  84. ↑ "Sebin detuvo al alcalde Metropolitano Antonio Ledezma". El Universal. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  85. ↑ "Sebin se lleva detenido al alcalde Antonio Ledezma". La Patilla. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  86. ↑ "Detuvieron al alcalde Antonio Ledezma". El Nacional.
  87. ↑ "Venezuela: Human rights groups reject condemnation of jailed Leopoldo Lopez as 'baseless'". International Business Times UK. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  88. ↑ Rosati, Andrew; Soto, Noris (6 December 2015). "Venezuela Seen Handing Congress to Opposition in Sunday Vote". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
  89. ↑ "Venezuela's new decree: Forced farm work for citizens". CNN. 29 June 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  90. ↑ "Thousands Of Venezuelans Cross Into Colombia In Search Of Food And Medicine". The Huffington Post. 17 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  91. ↑ "Hambre en Venezuela: El 15,7% de los venezolanos se ha alimentado de residuos". Diario Las Américas. 9 September 2016. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
  92. ↑ "Man claims son was eaten by fellow inmates during riot in Venezuelan prison". Fox News. 14 October 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
  93. ↑ "Venezuela's Maduro decried as 'dictator' after Congress annulled". Reuters. 31 March 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  94. ↑ "Venezuela crisis: Helicopter launches attack on Supreme Court". BBC. June 28, 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
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